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  {
   "title": "Hezbollah",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hezbollah&oldid=1361207807",
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   "lead_before": "Islamist movement and militant group based in Lebanon For other uses, see Hezbollah (disambiguation) . \"Hizbullah\" redirects here. For the Indonesian militant group formed during the Japanese occupation, see Hizbullah (Indonesia) . Hezbollah is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party with an active paramilitary wing that has been banned by the Lebanese government since March 2026, amid Israel's war on Lebanon . Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council , and its political wing is the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese Parliament . Its armed strength was assessed to be equivalent to that of a medium-sized army in 2016. Hezbollah was founded in 1982 by Lebanese clerics in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon . Inspired by the Iranian Revolution of 1979 and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini 's model of Islamic governance, Hezbollah established strong ties with Iran and is part of the \" Axis of Resistance \". The group was initially supported by 1,500 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) instructors, who helped unify various Lebanese Shia factions under Hezbollah's leadership. Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto outlined its key objectives , which include expelling Western influence from the region, destroying Israel , pledging allegiance to Iran's supreme leader , and establishing an Islamic government influenced by Iran's political ideology . However, the manifesto also emphasised Lebanese self-determination. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Hezbollah fought against Israeli forces and the South Lebanon Army (SLA), eventually leading to Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000. Hezbollah also played a prominent role in the 2006 Lebanon War and later became involved in the Syrian civil war , where it fought alongside the government of Bashar al-Assad against the ultimately victorious rebel forces. In 2009, Hezbollah updated their manifesto to oppose political sectarianism, appeal to non-Islamic movements, and promote a national unity government. The updated manifesto has the same basic approach to foreign policy, emphasising the hegemonic strategies of the US and Israel's role in the region as a forward base for colonising the region. Since the 1990s, Hezbollah has grown into a significant political force in Lebanon. The group operates a vast social services network, including schools and hospitals, and runs a satellite TV station, Al-Manar . Politically, Hezbollah's Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc holds 15 seats in the Lebanese Parliament, making it a powerful player in Lebanon's government. However, the group's influence has led to growing domestic criticism. Following the 2020 Beirut port explosion , Hezbollah was accused of obstructing efforts to hold those responsible accountable, contributing to a decline in public trust. A 2024 Arab Barometer survey found that 55% of Lebanese have \"no trust at all\" in Hezbollah, although it remains popular among the Shia population. Despite calls for disarmament under United Nations Security Council resolutions, Hezbollah has expanded its military capabilities. As of 2013 its armed wing is considered stronger than the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF), making it one of the most powerful non-state actors in the world. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah declared in 2021 that the group had 100,000 fighters. Hezbollah has been involved in several high-profile attacks; it is believed to be responsible for the bombing of the US embassy and the US and French barracks bombings in Beirut in 1983, the assassination of Rafic Hariri in 2005, as well as later attacks, including bombings and hijackings. While Hezbollah has been regarded as a resistance movement by some scholars, the entire organisation, or its military wing alone, has been designated as a terrorist group by at least 28 countries as of April 2026, including most Western countries. Since October 2023, Hezbollah has been at war with Israel . During this war, Nasrallah was assassinated after 32 years of leading the group, along with other key members of Hezbollah leadership. The conflict has led to the 2024 Lebanon War , which saw Southern Lebanon invaded by Israel, followed by a ceasefire . On 7 August 2025, in a government meeting specifically addressing the disarmament of Hezbollah , the majority of the government voted to approve the decision. The Lebanese Army was tasked to create a plan ensuring that only the state has control over weapons in Lebanon. The decision is based on a US plan to disarm Hezbollah. On 5 September, the Lebanese cabinet approved the Homeland Shield Plan , the LAF's roadmap for the disarmament of all militias in Lebanon and specifically Hezbollah. On 2 March 2026, Lebanese Prime Minister Nawaf Salam stated that the organisation's military actions rage outside of Lebanese law. ^ \"Hezbollah's Qassem pledges allegiance to Iran's new leader Mojtaba Khamenei\" . Dawn . 11 March 2026 . Retrieved 13 March 2026 . ^ \"Is Hezbollah Reshuffling Its Leadership with New Appointments?\" . This is Beirut . Retrieved 29 June 2025 . ^ Beeri, Tal (12 January 2025). \"Ali Damoush - The New Head of Hezbollah's Executive Council\" . Alma Research and Education Center . Retrieved 29 June 2025 . ^ \"Fadlallah Hits Back at March 14 over Karam Release, Marouni Slams 'Treason Accusations' \" . Naharnet. 18 April 2013. ^ Dalacoura, Katerina (2012). \"Islamist Terrorism and National Liberation: Hamas and Hizbullah\" . Islamist Terrorism and Democracy in the Middle East . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 66– 96. doi : 10.1017/CBO9780511977367.004 . ISBN 978-0-511-97736-7 . LCCN 2010047275 . S2CID 150958046 . ^ Stepanova, Ekaterina (2008). Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects (PDF) . Oxford University Press. p. 113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2016. ^ Philip Smyth (February 2015). The Shiite Jihad in Syria and Its Regional Effects (PDF) (Report). The Washington Institute for Near East Studies. pp. 7– 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 13 March 2015 . ^ Elie Alagha, Joseph (2011). Hizbullah's Documents: From the 1985 Open Letter to the 2009 Manifesto . Amsterdam University Press . pp. 15, 20. ISBN 978-90-8555-037-2 . Shehata, Samer (2012). Islamist Politics in the Middle East: Movements and Change . Routledge . p. 176. ISBN 978-0-415-78361-3 . ^ El Husseinia, Rola (2010). \"Hezbollah and the Axis of Refusal: Hamas, Iran and Syria\". Third World Quarterly . 31 (5): 803– 815. doi : 10.1080/01436597.2010.502695 . S2CID 219628295 . ^ Joshua L. Gleis; Benedetta Berti (2012). Hezbollah and Hamas: A Comparative Study . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0671-8 . ^ \"Hezbollah and the Lebanese Popular Movement\" . ^ Salamey, Imad; Pearson, Frederic (2007). \"Hezbollah: A Proletarian Party with an Islamic Manifesto – A Sociopolitical Analysis of Islamist Populism in Lebanon and the Middle East\" . Small Wars & Insurgencies . 18 (3): 416– 438. doi : 10.1080/09592310701674358 . ISSN 0959-2318 . S2CID 143896155 . ^ \"Interior Ministry releases numbers of votes for new MPs\" . The Daily Star . 9 May 2018. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021 . Retrieved 24 October 2019 . ^ \"What Is Hezbollah?\" . Council on Foreign Relations . 22 January 2020 . Retrieved 17 December 2023 . ^ \"Lebanon's Hezbollah chief Nasrallah says group has never been stronger\" . Reuters . 18 October 2021. ^ \"Hassan Nasrallah says Hezbollah has 100,000 fighters\" . The New Arab . 18 October 2021. ^ \"Lebanon Hezbollah chief says movement has 100,000 fighters\" . France 24 . 18 October 2021. ^ Cite error: The named reference HarperCollins-2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hezbollah\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 15 December 2023 . Retrieved 17 December 2023 . ^ \"MPs, parties welcome Lebanon's decision to ban Hezbollah's military wing\" . Arab News Japan . Retrieved 30 March 2026 . ^ \"Lebanon bans Hezbollah's military activities after rocket attack on Israel\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 30 March 2026 . ^ \"Lebanon bans Hezbollah's armed wing after rocket fire\" . 2026. ^ \"Lebanon bans Hezbollah military actions after attack on Israel\" . 2026. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God . Hurst Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5 . ... the Jihad Council coordinates 'resistance activity'. Ghattas Saab, Antoine (15 May 2014). \"Hezbollah cutting costs as Iranian aid dries up\" . The Daily Star . Retrieved 1 June 2014 . ... Hezbollah's military wing ... Known as the 'Jihad Council' ^ \"Hezbollah: Not a terror group but a midsized army\" . Haaretz . August 2016. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. ^ \"Who Are Hezbollah?\" . BBC News . 21 May 2008 . Retrieved 15 August 2008 . ^ \"What is Iran's 'Axis of Resistance'?\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 8 December 2024 . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Adam Shatz (29 April 2004). \"In Search of Hezbollah\" . The New York Review of Books . 51 (7). Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. ^ Itamar Rabinovich (2008). Israel in the Middle East . UPNE. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4 . ^ Lopez, German (24 September 2024). \"Israel's Strikes on Lebanon\" . The New York Times . ^ Barnard, Anne (3 January 2014). \"Mystery in Hezbollah Operatives Life and Death\" . The New York Times . ^ Cite error: The named reference Berti was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference reuters20091130 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Deeb, Lara (31 July 2006). \"Hizballah: A Primer\" . Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. ^ Stroul, Dana (23 September 2024). \"Israel and Hezbollah Are Escalating Toward Catastrophe\" . Foreign Affairs . Retrieved 29 September 2024 . ^ Barnard, Anne (20 May 2013). \"Hezbollah's Role in Syria War Shakes the Lebanese\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 20 June 2013 . ^ El Deeb, Sarah (18 October 2021). \"Hezbollah leader declares his group has 100,000 fighters\" . Associated Press News . Retrieved 21 October 2021 . ^ \"Lebanon: UN-backed tribunal sentences Hezbollah militant in Hariri assassination\" . UN News . 11 December 2020 . Retrieved 10 December 2024 . ^ \"Rafik Hariri killing: Hezbollah duo convicted of 2005 bombing on appeal\" . 10 March 2022 . Retrieved 10 December 2024 . ^ Laverty, Rory; Lamothe, Dan (21 September 2024). \"For Americans scarred by Beirut bombings, a measure of delayed justice\" . The Washington Post . Hezbollah was founded in 1982, as violence against U.S. troops in Lebanon spiked. In addition to its roles in the major bombings of 1983, the militant group was involved in the bombing of the U.S. Embassy annex in Beirut in 1984 that killed 23 people, the hijacking of TWA Flight 847 in 1985 and the Khobar Towers attack in Saudi Arabia in 1996 that killed 19 U.S. airmen, according to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. ^ Lopez, German (24 September 2024). \"Israel's Strikes on Lebanon\" . The New York Times . Hezbollah first gained international notoriety in 1983, when it blew up the American embassy in Beirut, Lebanon's capital, and later American and French barracks there. ^ Farida 2019 , p. 1-2. ^ Daher 2019 , p. 8. ^ Al-Aloosy 2020 , p. 43, 74. ^ Kanter, James; Rudoren, Jodi (22 July 2013). \"European Union Adds Military Wing of Hezbollah to List of Terrorist Organisations\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 4 September 2013 . ^ Roche, MaryClare; Robbins, Michael (12 July 2024). \"What the Lebanese People Really Think of Hezbollah\" . Foreign Affairs . ISSN 0015-7120 . Retrieved 28 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference aljazeera20250905 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference apnews20250905 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"« Rébellion » et « pure folie » : au Liban, les responsables condamnent en bloc les tirs du Hezbollah sur Israël\" . L'Orient-Le Jour (in French). 2 March 2026 . Retrieved 2 March 2026 . ^ \"PM Salam affirms no military action outside state authority in rebuke to Hezbollah\" . LBCIV7 . Retrieved 2 March 2026 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Islamist movement and militant group based in Lebanon For other uses, see Hezbollah (disambiguation) . \"Hizbullah\" redirects here. For the Indonesian militant group formed during the Japanese occupation, see Hizbullah (Indonesia) . Hezbollah is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party with an active paramilitary wing that has been banned by the Lebanese government since March 2026, amid Israel's war on Lebanon . Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council , and its political wing is the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese Parliament . Its armed strength was assessed to be equivalent to that of a medium-sized army in 2016. Hezbollah was founded in 1982 by Lebanese clerics in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon . Inspired by the Iranian Revolution of 1979 and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini 's model of Islamic governance, Hezbollah established strong ties with Iran and is part of the \" Axis of Resistance \". The group was initially supported by 1,500 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) instructors, who helped unify various Lebanese Shia factions under Hezbollah's leadership. Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto outlined its key objectives , which include expelling Western influence from the region, destroying Israel , pledging allegiance to Iran's supreme leader , and establishing an Islamic government influenced by Iran's political ideology . However, the manifesto also emphasised Lebanese self-determination. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Hezbollah fought against Israeli forces and the South Lebanon Army (SLA), eventually leading to Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000. Hezbollah also played a prominent role in the 2006 Lebanon War and later became involved in the Syrian civil war , where it fought alongside the government of Bashar al-Assad against the ultimately victorious rebel forces. In 2009, Hezbollah updated their manifesto to oppose political sectarianism, appeal to non-Islamic movements, and promote a national unity government. The updated manifesto has the same basic approach to foreign policy, emphasising the hegemonic strategies of the US and Israel's role in the region as a forward base for colonising the region. Since the 1990s, Hezbollah has grown into a significant political force in Lebanon. The group operates a vast social services network, including schools and hospitals, and runs a satellite TV station, Al-Manar . Politically, Hezbollah's Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc holds 15 seats in the Lebanese Parliament, making it a powerful player in Lebanon's government. However, the group's influence has led to growing domestic criticism. Following the 2020 Beirut port explosion , Hezbollah was accused of obstructing efforts to hold those responsible accountable, contributing to a decline in public trust. A 2024 Arab Barometer survey found that 55% of Lebanese have \"no trust at all\" in Hezbollah, although it remains popular among the Shia population. Despite calls for disarmament under United Nations Security Council resolutions, Hezbollah has expanded its military capabilities. As of 2013 its armed wing is considered stronger than the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF), making it one of the most powerful non-state actors in the world. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah declared in 2021 that the group had 100,000 fighters. Hezbollah has been involved in several high-profile attacks; it is believed to be responsible for the bombing of the US embassy and the US and French barracks bombings in Beirut in 1983, the assassination of Rafic Hariri in 2005, as well as later attacks, including bombings and hijackings. While Hezbollah has been regarded as a resistance movement by some scholars, the entire organisation, or its military wing alone, has been designated as a terrorist group by at least 28 countries as of April 2026, including most Western countries. Since October 2023, Hezbollah has been at war with Israel . During this war, Nasrallah was assassinated after 32 years of leading the group, along with other key members of Hezbollah leadership. The conflict has led to the 2024 Lebanon War , which saw Southern Lebanon invaded by Israel, followed by a ceasefire . On 7 August 2025, in a government meeting specifically addressing the disarmament of Hezbollah , the majority of the government voted to approve the decision. The Lebanese Army was tasked to create a plan ensuring that only the state has control over weapons in Lebanon. The decision is based on a US plan to disarm Hezbollah. On 5 September, the Lebanese cabinet approved the Homeland Shield Plan , the LAF's roadmap for the disarmament of all militias in Lebanon and specifically Hezbollah. On 2 March 2026, Lebanese Prime Minister Nawaf Salam stated that the organisation's military actions rage outside of Lebanese law. ^ \"Hezbollah's Qassem pledges allegiance to Iran's new leader Mojtaba Khamenei\" . Dawn . 11 March 2026 . Retrieved 13 March 2026 . ^ \"Is Hezbollah Reshuffling Its Leadership with New Appointments?\" . This is Beirut . Retrieved 29 June 2025 . ^ Beeri, Tal (12 January 2025). \"Ali Damoush - The New Head of Hezbollah's Executive Council\" . Alma Research and Education Center . Retrieved 29 June 2025 . ^ \"Fadlallah Hits Back at March 14 over Karam Release, Marouni Slams 'Treason Accusations' \" . Naharnet. 18 April 2013. ^ Dalacoura, Katerina (2012). \"Islamist Terrorism and National Liberation: Hamas and Hizbullah\" . Islamist Terrorism and Democracy in the Middle East . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 66– 96. doi : 10.1017/CBO9780511977367.004 . ISBN 978-0-511-97736-7 . LCCN 2010047275 . S2CID 150958046 . ^ Stepanova, Ekaterina (2008). Terrorism in Asymmetrical Conflict: Ideological and Structural Aspects (PDF) . Oxford University Press. p. 113. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2016. ^ Philip Smyth (February 2015). The Shiite Jihad in Syria and Its Regional Effects (PDF) (Report). The Washington Institute for Near East Studies. pp. 7– 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 13 March 2015 . ^ Elie Alagha, Joseph (2011). Hizbullah's Documents: From the 1985 Open Letter to the 2009 Manifesto . Amsterdam University Press . pp. 15, 20. ISBN 978-90-8555-037-2 . Shehata, Samer (2012). Islamist Politics in the Middle East: Movements and Change . Routledge . p. 176. ISBN 978-0-415-78361-3 . ^ El Husseinia, Rola (2010). \"Hezbollah and the Axis of Refusal: Hamas, Iran and Syria\". Third World Quarterly . 31 (5): 803– 815. doi : 10.1080/01436597.2010.502695 . S2CID 219628295 . ^ Joshua L. Gleis; Benedetta Berti (2012). Hezbollah and Hamas: A Comparative Study . JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0671-8 . ^ \"Hezbollah and the Lebanese Popular Movement\" . ^ Salamey, Imad; Pearson, Frederic (2007). \"Hezbollah: A Proletarian Party with an Islamic Manifesto – A Sociopolitical Analysis of Islamist Populism in Lebanon and the Middle East\" . Small Wars & Insurgencies . 18 (3): 416– 438. doi : 10.1080/09592310701674358 . ISSN 0959-2318 . S2CID 143896155 . ^ \"Interior Ministry releases numbers of votes for new MPs\" . The Daily Star . 9 May 2018. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021 . Retrieved 24 October 2019 . ^ \"What Is Hezbollah?\" . Council on Foreign Relations . 22 January 2020 . Retrieved 17 December 2023 . ^ \"Lebanon's Hezbollah chief Nasrallah says group has never been stronger\" . Reuters . 18 October 2021. ^ \"Hassan Nasrallah says Hezbollah has 100,000 fighters\" . The New Arab . 18 October 2021. ^ \"Lebanon Hezbollah chief says movement has 100,000 fighters\" . France 24 . 18 October 2021. ^ Cite error: The named reference HarperCollins-2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hezbollah\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 15 December 2023 . Retrieved 17 December 2023 . ^ \"MPs, parties welcome Lebanon's decision to ban Hezbollah's military wing\" . Arab News Japan . Retrieved 30 March 2026 . ^ \"Lebanon bans Hezbollah's military activities after rocket attack on Israel\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 30 March 2026 . ^ \"Lebanon bans Hezbollah's armed wing after rocket fire\" . 2026. ^ \"Lebanon bans Hezbollah military actions after attack on Israel\" . 2026. ^ Levitt, Matthew (2013). Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon's Party of God . Hurst Publishers. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-84904-333-5 . ... the Jihad Council coordinates 'resistance activity'. Ghattas Saab, Antoine (15 May 2014). \"Hezbollah cutting costs as Iranian aid dries up\" . The Daily Star . Retrieved 1 June 2014 . ... Hezbollah's military wing ... Known as the 'Jihad Council' ^ \"Hezbollah: Not a terror group but a midsized army\" . Haaretz . August 2016. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. ^ \"Who Are Hezbollah?\" . BBC News . 21 May 2008 . Retrieved 15 August 2008 . ^ \"What is Iran's 'Axis of Resistance'?\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 8 December 2024 . Retrieved 8 January 2026 . ^ Adam Shatz (29 April 2004). \"In Search of Hezbollah\" . The New York Review of Books . 51 (7). Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. ^ Itamar Rabinovich (2008). Israel in the Middle East . UPNE. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4 . ^ Lopez, German (24 September 2024). \"Israel's Strikes on Lebanon\" . The New York Times . ^ Barnard, Anne (3 January 2014). \"Mystery in Hezbollah Operatives Life and Death\" . The New York Times . ^ Cite error: The named reference Berti was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference reuters20091130 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Deeb, Lara (31 July 2006). \"Hizballah: A Primer\" . Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. ^ Stroul, Dana (23 September 2024). \"Israel and Hezbollah Are Escalating Toward Catastrophe\" . Foreign Affairs . Retrieved 29 September 2024 . ^ Barnard, Anne (20 May 2013). \"Hezbollah's Role in Syria War Shakes the Lebanese\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 20 June 2013 . ^ El Deeb, Sarah (18 October 2021). \"Hezbollah leader declares his group has 100,000 fighters\" . Associated Press News . Retrieved 21 October 2021 . ^ \"Lebanon: UN-backed tribunal sentences Hezbollah militant in Hariri assassination\" . UN News . 11 December 2020 . Retrieved 10 December 2024 . ^ \"Rafik Hariri killing: Hezbollah duo convicted of 2005 bombing on appeal\" . 10 March 2022 . Retrieved 10 December 2024 . ^ Laverty, Rory; Lamothe, Dan (21 September 2024). \"For Americans scarred by Beirut bombings, a measure of delayed justice\" . The Washington Post . Hezbollah was founded in 1982, as violence against U.S. troops in Lebanon spiked. In addition to its roles in the major bombings of 1983, the militant group was involved in the bombing of the U.S. Embassy annex in Beirut in 1984 that killed 23 people, the hijacking of TWA Flight 847 in 1985 and the Khobar Towers attack in Saudi Arabia in 1996 that killed 19 U.S. airmen, according to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. ^ Lopez, German (24 September 2024). \"Israel's Strikes on Lebanon\" . The New York Times . Hezbollah first gained international notoriety in 1983, when it blew up the American embassy in Beirut, Lebanon's capital, and later American and French barracks there. ^ Farida 2019 , p. 1-2. ^ Daher 2019 , p. 8. ^ Al-Aloosy 2020 , p. 43, 74. ^ Kanter, James; Rudoren, Jodi (22 July 2013). \"European Union Adds Military Wing of Hezbollah to List of Terrorist Organisations\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 4 September 2013 . ^ Roche, MaryClare; Robbins, Michael (12 July 2024). \"What the Lebanese People Really Think of Hezbollah\" . Foreign Affairs . ISSN 0015-7120 . Retrieved 28 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference aljazeera20250905 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference apnews20250905 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"« Rébellion » et « pure folie » : au Liban, les responsables condamnent en bloc les tirs du Hezbollah sur Israël\" . L'Orient-Le Jour (in French). 2 March 2026 . Retrieved 2 March 2026 . ^ \"PM Salam affirms no military action outside state authority in rebuke to Hezbollah\" . LBCIV7 . Retrieved 2 March 2026 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Palestinian Islamic Jihad",
   "pageid": 13093253,
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palestinian_Islamic_Jihad&oldid=1366299589",
   "lead_before": "Palestinian political party paramilitary force The Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine ( Arabic : حركة الجهاد الإسلامي في فلسطين , Ḥarakat al-Jihād al-Islāmi fi Filastīn ), commonly known simply as Palestinian Islamic Jihad ( PIJ ), is an Islamist Palestinian paramilitary organization formed in 1981. PIJ formed as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood and was influenced ideologically in its formation by the Islamic Revolution in Iran. It is a member of the Alliance of Palestinian Forces , which rejects the Oslo Accords and whose objective is the establishment of a sovereign Islamic Palestinian state . It calls for the military destruction of Israel and rejects a two-state solution . The organization's financial backing has historically come mainly from Syria and Hezbollah . Since 2014, PIJ has seen its power steadily increase with the backing of funds from Iran. PIJ has notably participated in the ongoing Gaza war (2023–present), fighting alongside Hamas and other allied Palestinian factions . The armed wing of PIJ is Al-Quds Brigades (also known as \"Saraya\"), also formed in 1981, which is active in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip , with its main strongholds in the West Bank being the cities of Hebron and Jenin . Its operations have included suicide bombings , attacks on Israeli civilians, as well as the firing of rockets into Israel, targeting civilians. It has been deemed a terrorist organization by several countries. ^ Cite error: The named reference JihadisminPIJ was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Interview was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Skare, Erik (2021). A history of Palestinian Islamic Jihad : faith, awareness, and revolution in the Middle East . Cambridge, United Kingdom . pp. 39– 43. ISBN 978-1-108-95444-0 . OCLC 1196822773 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Ben Gedalyahu, Tzvi (7 November 2011). \"Iran Backs Islamic Jihad's 8,000-Man Army in Gaza\" . Israel National News . Arutz Sheva. Archived from the original on 8 November 2011 . Retrieved 7 November 2011 . ^ Skare, Erik (28 January 2021). A History of Palestinian Islamic Jihad Faith, Awareness, and Revolution in the Middle East (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press . p. 2. doi : 10.1017/9781108954440 . ISBN 9781108845069 . ^ BBC Who are Islamic Jihad? 9 June 2003 ^ Cite error: The named reference ANS was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The Terrorist Connection - Iran, The Islamic Jihad And Hamas\" . fas.org . Archived from the original on 12 December 2017 . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . ^ \"Australian Government Attorneys General's Department - Palestinian Islamic Jihad\" . 20 August 2006. Archived from the original on 20 August 2006 . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . ^ \"The Gaza Strip: Who's in charge?\" . The Economist . 29 March 2014. Archived from the original on 5 July 2014 . Retrieved 1 September 2017 . ^ \"Not only Hamas: eight factions at war with Israel in Gaza\" . Newsweek . 7 November 2023 . Retrieved 22 September 2024 . ^ \"Fighting intensifies between Israel and Hamas-led militants in north and south Gaza\" . Reuters . 15 May 2024. ^ \"The Order of Battle of Hamas' Izz al Din al Qassem Brigades, Part 1: North and Central Gaza\" . Institute for the Study of War . Retrieved 9 April 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian political party paramilitary force The Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine ( Arabic : حركة الجهاد الإسلامي في فلسطين , Ḥarakat al-Jihād al-Islāmi fi Filastīn ), commonly known simply as Palestinian Islamic Jihad ( PIJ ), is an Islamist Palestinian paramilitary organization formed in 1981. PIJ formed as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood and was influenced ideologically in its formation by the Islamic Revolution in Iran. It is a member of the Alliance of Palestinian Forces , which rejects the Oslo Accords and whose objective is the establishment of a sovereign Islamic Palestinian state . It calls for the military destruction of Israel and rejects a two-state solution . The organization's financial backing has historically come mainly from Syria and Hezbollah . Since 2014, PIJ has seen its power steadily increase with the backing of funds from Iran. PIJ has notably participated in the ongoing Gaza war (2023–present), fighting alongside Hamas and other allied Palestinian factions . The armed wing of PIJ is Al-Quds Brigades (also known as \"Saraya\"), also formed in 1981, which is active in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip , with its main strongholds in the West Bank being the cities of Hebron and Jenin . Its operations have included suicide bombings , attacks on Israeli civilians, as well as the firing of rockets into Israel, targeting civilians. It has been deemed a terrorist organization by several countries. PIJ is considered by Israel the most extreme Palestinian militant organization in its methods and its ideology. ^ Cite error: The named reference Interview was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Skare, Erik (2021). A history of Palestinian Islamic Jihad : faith, awareness, and revolution in the Middle East . Cambridge, United Kingdom . pp. 39– 43. ISBN 978-1-108-95444-0 . OCLC 1196822773 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link ) ^ Ben Gedalyahu, Tzvi (7 November 2011). \"Iran Backs Islamic Jihad's 8,000-Man Army in Gaza\" . Israel National News . Arutz Sheva. Archived from the original on 8 November 2011 . Retrieved 7 November 2011 . ^ Skare, Erik (28 January 2021). A History of Palestinian Islamic Jihad Faith, Awareness, and Revolution in the Middle East (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press . p. 2. doi : 10.1017/9781108954440 . ISBN 9781108845069 . ^ BBC Who are Islamic Jihad? 9 June 2003 ^ Cite error: The named reference ANS was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The Terrorist Connection - Iran, The Islamic Jihad And Hamas\" . fas.org . Archived from the original on 12 December 2017 . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . ^ \"Australian Government Attorneys General's Department - Palestinian Islamic Jihad\" . 20 August 2006. Archived from the original on 20 August 2006 . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . ^ \"The Gaza Strip: Who's in charge?\" . The Economist . 29 March 2014. Archived from the original on 5 July 2014 . Retrieved 1 September 2017 . ^ \"Not only Hamas: eight factions at war with Israel in Gaza\" . Newsweek . 7 November 2023 . Retrieved 22 September 2024 . ^ \"Fighting intensifies between Israel and Hamas-led militants in north and south Gaza\" . Reuters . 15 May 2024. ^ \"The Order of Battle of Hamas' Izz al Din al Qassem Brigades, Part 1: North and Central Gaza\" . Institute for the Study of War . Retrieved 9 April 2026 . ^ Reich, Bernard; Goldberg, David H. (2008). Historical Dictionary of Israel . Scarecrow Press. pp. 373– 375. ISBN 978-0-3133-2485-7 . Archived from the original on 21 January 2016 . Retrieved 10 March 2011 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Yasser Arafat",
   "pageid": 34289,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-23T21:26:01Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yasser_Arafat&oldid=1359073578",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yasser_Arafat&oldid=1365685502",
   "lead_before": "President of Palestine from 1989 to 2004 \"Yasir Arafat\" redirects here. For other uses, see Yasir Arafat (disambiguation) . Personal Early life Compound Death conspiracy theories Suha Arafat (wife) Palestine Liberation Organization Chairman (1969–2004) PLO in Lebanon Pre-presidency War of Attrition Battle of Karameh Black September Insurgency in South Lebanon First Intifada Operation Wooden Leg Lebanese Civil War Battle of the Hotels Aishiyeh massacres Chekka massacre 1978 South Lebanon conflict Battle of Zahleh 1982 Lebanon War Battle of Tripoli War of the Camps Battle of Sidon 1st President of Palestine Israeli–Palestinian conflict Oslo Accords 2000 Camp David Summit Second Intifada Elections 1996 v t e Yasser Arafat ( c. August 1929 – 11 November 2004), also popularly known by his kunya Abu Ammar , was a Palestinian political leader. He was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004, President of Palestine from 1989 to 2004 and President of the Palestinian Authority (PNA) from 1994 to 2004. Ideologically an Arab nationalist and a socialist , Arafat was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004. Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo, Egypt, where he spent most of his youth. He studied at the University of King Fuad I . While a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel , he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . Following the defeat of Arab forces, Arafat returned to Cairo and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956. In the latter part of the 1950s, Arafat co-founded Fatah, a paramilitary organization which sought Israel's replacement with a Palestinian state. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets. In the latter part of the 1960s Arafat's profile grew; in 1967 he joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council (PNC). Fatah's growing presence in Jordan resulted in military clashes with King Hussein 's Jordanian government and in the early 1970s it relocated to Lebanon. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, resulting in the organization becoming a major target of Israeli invasions during the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and 1982 Lebanon War . From 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israel's right to exist and sought a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . In 1994, he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and promoting self-governance for the Palestinian territories . He engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991 , the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit . The success of the negotiations in Oslo led to Arafat being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , alongside Israeli prime ministers Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres , in 1994. At the time, Fatah's support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas and other militant rivals. In late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into a coma and died. The cause of Arafat's death remains the subject of speculation. Investigations by Russian and French teams determined no foul play was involved, while a Swiss team determined he was radiologically poisoned . Arafat remains a controversial figure. Palestinians generally view him as a martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people, while many Israelis regarded him as a terrorist. Palestinian rivals, including Islamists and several PLO radicals , frequently denounced him as corrupt or too submissive in his concessions to the Israeli government. ^ Helena Cobban (before Yasser Arafat's marriage): \"Yasser Arafat is not married, but is called 'Abu 'Ammar' as an inversion of the name of the heroic early Muslim warrior ' Ammar bin ('son of) Yasser . The idea, presumably, that if Yasser Arafat had a son, he would or should be as heroic as the earlier Ammar [ibn Yasir]\", Cobban 1984 , p. 272 ^ \"Definition of Arafat\" . dictionary.com . Random House . Retrieved 12 February 2023 . ^ Some sources use the term Chairman , rather than President ; the Arabic word for both titles is the same. See President of the Palestinian National Authority for further information. ^ \"Yasser Arafat: French rule out foul play in former Palestinian leader's death\" . The Guardian . 16 March 2015. ^ \"France drops investigation into Arafat's death\" . The Jerusalem Post . Reuters. 2 September 2015 . Retrieved 16 June 2024 . ^ \"Yasser Arafat investigation: Russian probe finds death not caused by radiation\" . CBS News. 26 December 2013 . Retrieved 16 June 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ_Swiss_study was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Creed, Richard D. Jr. (2014). Eighteen Years in Lebanon and Two Intifadas: The Israeli Defense Force and the U.S. Army Operational Environment . Pickle Partners Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-78289-593-0 . ^ Ghanem, As'ad (2010). Palestinian Politics after Arafat: A Failed National Movement . Indiana University Press. p. 259. ^ Kershner, Isabel (4 July 2012). \"Palestinians May Exhume Arafat After Report of Poisoning\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 5 August 2012 . ^ Hockstader, Lee (11 November 2004). \"A Dreamer Who Forced His Cause Onto World Stage\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 16 June 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "President of Palestine from 1989 to 2004 \"Yasir Arafat\" redirects here. For other uses, see Yasir Arafat (disambiguation) . Personal Early life Compound Death conspiracy theories Suha Arafat (wife) Palestine Liberation Organization Chairman (1969–2004) PLO in Lebanon Pre-presidency War of Attrition Battle of Karameh Black September Insurgency in South Lebanon First Intifada Operation Wooden Leg Lebanese Civil War Battle of the Hotels Aishiyeh massacres Chekka massacre 1978 South Lebanon conflict Battle of Zahleh 1982 Lebanon War Battle of Tripoli War of the Camps Battle of Sidon 1st President of Palestine Israeli–Palestinian conflict Oslo Accords 2000 Camp David Summit Second Intifada Elections 1996 v t e Yasser Arafat ( c. August 1929 – 11 November 2004), also popularly known by his kunya Abu Ammar , was a Palestinian political leader. He was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004, President of Palestine from 1989 to 2004 and President of the Palestinian Authority (PNA) from 1994 to 2004. Ideologically an Arab nationalist and a socialist , Arafat was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004. Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo, Egypt, where he spent most of his youth. He studied at the University of King Fuad I . While a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel , he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . Following the defeat of Arab forces, Arafat returned to Cairo and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956. In the latter part of the 1950s, Arafat co-founded Fatah, a paramilitary organization which sought Israel's replacement with a Palestinian state. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets. In the latter part of the 1960s Arafat's profile grew; in 1967 he joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council (PNC). Fatah's growing presence in Jordan resulted in military clashes with King Hussein 's Jordanian government and in the early 1970s it relocated to Lebanon. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, resulting in the organization becoming a major target of Israeli invasions during the 1978 South Lebanon conflict and 1982 Lebanon War . From 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israel's right to exist and sought a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . In 1994, he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and promoting self-governance for the Palestinian territories . He engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991 , the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit . The success of the negotiations in Oslo led to Arafat being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , alongside Israeli prime ministers Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres , in 1994. At the time, Fatah's support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas and other militant rivals. In late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into a coma and died. The cause of Arafat's death remains the subject of speculation. Investigations by Russian and French teams determined no foul play was involved, while a Swiss team determined he was radiologically poisoned . Arafat remains a controversial figure. Palestinians generally view him as a martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people, while many Israelis regarded him as a terrorist. Palestinian rivals, including Islamists and several PLO radicals , frequently denounced him as corrupt or too submissive in his concessions to the Israeli government. ^ Helena Cobban (before Yasser Arafat's marriage): \"Yasser Arafat is not married, but is called 'Abu 'Ammar' as an inversion of the name of the heroic early Muslim warrior ' Ammar bin ('son of) Yasser . The idea, presumably, that if Yasser Arafat had a son, he would or should be as heroic as the earlier Ammar [ibn Yasir]\", Cobban 1984 , p. 272 ^ \"Definition of Arafat\" . dictionary.com . Random House . Retrieved 12 February 2023 . ^ Some sources use the term Chairman , rather than President ; the Arabic word for both titles is the same. See President of the Palestinian National Authority for further information. ^ \"Yasser Arafat: French rule out foul play in former Palestinian leader's death\" . The Guardian . 16 March 2015. ^ \"France drops investigation into Arafat's death\" . The Jerusalem Post . Reuters. 2 September 2015 . Retrieved 16 June 2024 . ^ \"Yasser Arafat investigation: Russian probe finds death not caused by radiation\" . CBS News. 26 December 2013 . Retrieved 16 June 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ_Swiss_study was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Creed, Richard D. Jr. (2014). Eighteen Years in Lebanon and Two Intifadas: The Israeli Defense Force and the U.S. Army Operational Environment . Pickle Partners Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-78289-593-0 . ^ Ghanem, As'ad (2010). Palestinian Politics after Arafat: A Failed National Movement . Indiana University Press. p. 259. ^ Kershner, Isabel (4 July 2012). \"Palestinians May Exhume Arafat After Report of Poisoning\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 5 August 2012 . ^ Hockstader, Lee (11 November 2004). \"A Dreamer Who Forced His Cause Onto World Stage\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 16 June 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine",
   "pageid": 39490756,
   "revid_before": 1358047725,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-20T02:52:35Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine&oldid=1358047725",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine&oldid=1365069765",
   "lead_before": "Palestinian Marxist–Leninist organization \"PFLP\" redirects here. For other meanings, see PFLP (disambiguation) . The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ; Arabic : الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير فلسطين , romanized : al-Jabha ash-Shaʿbiyya li-Taḥrīr Filasṭīn ) is a Palestinian Marxist–Leninist organization founded in 1967 by George Habash . It has consistently been the second-largest of the groups forming the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the largest being Fatah . A secular organization, the PFLP has generally taken a hard line on Palestinian national aspirations, opposing the more moderate stance of Fatah. It does not recognize Israel and promotes a one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . The military wing of the PFLP is called the Abu Ali Mustafa Brigades . The PFLP pioneered armed aircraft-hijackings in the late 1960s and early 1970s. More recently, the group has participated in the ongoing Gaza war alongside Hamas and other allied Palestinian factions . It has been designated a terrorist organization by the United States , Japan , Canada and the European Union . Ahmad Sa'adat , who was sentenced in 2006 to 30 years in an Israeli prison, has served as General Secretary of the PFLP since 2001. As of 2025 , the PFLP has boycotted participation in both the PLO Executive Committee and the Palestinian National Council . ^ \"Profile: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)\" . BBC News . 18 November 2014. ^ Cite error: The named reference One-state solution was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"PFLP, DFLP, PFLP-GC, Palestinian leftists\" . cfr.org . US: Council on Foreign Relations. 31 October 2005 . Retrieved 25 August 2025 . ^ \"Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine | Palestinian political organization | Resistance, Activism, Liberation | Britannica\" . Britannica . 17 January 2024 . Retrieved 22 January 2024 . ^ Brehony, Louis (26 September 2024). \"Ghassan Kanafani and the Leninist Warriors of Palestine\" . Arab Studies Quarterly . 46 ( 3– 4). doi : 10.13169/arabstudquar.46.3-4.0189 . ISSN 0271-3519 . ^ \"Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine\" . BBC News. 26 January 2008 . Retrieved 4 February 2012 . ^ \"Not only Hamas: eight factions at war with Israel in Gaza\" . Newsweek . 7 November 2023 . Retrieved 22 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The Order of Battle of Hamas' Izz al Din al Qassem Brigades, Part 1: North and Central Gaza\" . Institute for the Study of War . Retrieved 22 September 2024 . ^ \"Foreign Terrorist Organizations\" . U.S. Department of State. ^ \"Implementation of the Measures including the Freezing of Assets against Terrorists and the Like\" . Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 6 April 2013 . Retrieved 21 November 2013 . ^ \"About the listing process\" . publicsafety.gc.ca . Retrieved 17 July 2015 . ^ \"EUR-Lex – Official Journal of the European Union\" . lex.europa.eu . ^ Ibrahim, Arwa (13 February 2015). \"PROFILE: The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine\" . Middle East Eye . ^ \"Bringing the PFLP back into PLO fold?\" . Ma'an News Agency . 2 October 2010. ^ Sawafta, Ali (30 April 2018). \"Palestinian forum convenes after 22 years, beset by division\" . Reuters.",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian Marxist–Leninist organization \"PFLP\" redirects here. For other meanings, see PFLP (disambiguation) . The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ; Arabic : الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير فلسطين , romanized : al-Jabha ash-Shaʿbiyya li-Taḥrīr Filasṭīn ) is a Palestinian Marxist–Leninist organization founded in 1967 by George Habash . It has consistently been the second-largest of the groups forming the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the largest being Fatah . A secular organization, the PFLP has generally taken a hard line on Palestinian national aspirations, opposing the more moderate stance of Fatah. It does not recognize Israel and promotes a one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . The military wing of the PFLP is called the Abu Ali Mustafa Brigades . The PFLP pioneered armed aircraft-hijackings in the late 1960s and early 1970s. More recently, the group has participated in the ongoing Gaza war alongside Hamas and other allied Palestinian factions . It has been designated a terrorist organization by the United States , Japan , Canada and the European Union . Ahmad Sa'adat , who was sentenced in 2006 to 30 years in an Israeli prison, has served as General Secretary of the PFLP since 2001. As of 2025 , the PFLP has boycotted participation in both the PLO Executive Committee and the Palestinian National Council . ^ \"Profile: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)\" . BBC News . 18 November 2014. ^ Cite error: The named reference One-state solution was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"PFLP, DFLP, PFLP-GC, Palestinian leftists\" . cfr.org . US: Council on Foreign Relations. 31 October 2005 . Retrieved 25 August 2025 . ^ \"Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine | Palestinian political organization | Resistance, Activism, Liberation | Britannica\" . Britannica . 17 January 2024 . Retrieved 22 January 2024 . ^ Brehony, Louis (26 September 2024). \"Ghassan Kanafani and the Leninist Warriors of Palestine\" . Arab Studies Quarterly . 46 ( 3– 4). doi : 10.13169/arabstudquar.46.3-4.0189 . ISSN 0271-3519 . ^ \"Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine\" . BBC News. 26 January 2008 . Retrieved 4 February 2012 . ^ \"Not only Hamas: eight factions at war with Israel in Gaza\" . Newsweek . 7 November 2023 . Retrieved 22 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The Order of Battle of Hamas' Izz al Din al Qassem Brigades, Part 1: North and Central Gaza\" . Institute for the Study of War . Retrieved 22 September 2024 . ^ \"Foreign Terrorist Organizations\" . U.S. Department of State. ^ \"Implementation of the Measures including the Freezing of Assets against Terrorists and the Like\" . Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 6 April 2013 . Retrieved 21 November 2013 . ^ \"About the listing process\" . publicsafety.gc.ca . Retrieved 17 July 2015 . ^ \"EUR-Lex – Official Journal of the European Union\" . lex.europa.eu . ^ Ibrahim, Arwa (13 February 2015). \"PROFILE: The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine\" . Middle East Eye . ^ \"Bringing the PFLP back into PLO fold?\" . Ma'an News Agency . 2 October 2010. ^ Sawafta, Ali (30 April 2018). \"Palestinian forum convenes after 22 years, beset by division\" . Reuters."
  },
  {
   "title": "Marwan Barghouti",
   "pageid": 71897,
   "revid_before": 1360120841,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-17T02:59:53Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marwan_Barghouti&oldid=1360120841",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marwan_Barghouti&oldid=1364535393",
   "lead_before": "Palestinian politician (born 1959) Not to be confused with Mustafa Barghouti . Marwan Barghouti ( Arabic : مروان البرغوثي , romanized : Marwān al-Bargūṯiyy ; born 6 June 1959), sometimes known by the kunya Abu Al-Qassam ( أبو القسام ), is a Palestinian political leader who has served as an elected legislator and has been an advocate of a two-state solution since prior to his imprisonment by Israel . Barghouti led street protests and diplomatic initiatives until 2002, the early Second Intifada , when he was captured, convicted, and imprisoned by Israel on charges of involvement in deadly attacks that resulted in the deaths of five people. Barghouti declined to recognise the legitimacy of the court or enter a plea, but stated that he had no connection to the incidents for which he was convicted. An Inter-Parliamentary Union report found that Barghouti was not given a fair trial and questioned the quality of the evidence. Despite his imprisonment, Barghouti has consistently topped opinion polls asking Palestinians whom they would vote for in a Presidential election , ahead of both current Palestinian Authority president Mahmoud Abbas and leaders of Hamas . Several prominent supporters of a resumption of the Israel-Palestine peace process view Barghouti as the leader most able to unify the Palestinians and negotiate a compromise with Israel. He has been referred to as \"the Palestinian Mandela\". During his years in prison, Barghouti has continued to be politically active. He was an instigator and lead author of the 2006 Palestinian Prisoners' Document , which proposed a political path to a two-state solution, and secured support from Hamas . He has organised education for fellow inmates, and in 2017 led a hunger strike that led to increased visitation rights. Since October 2023 , he has been denied visits from his family and been severely beaten several times, leading to persistent damage to his health, according to his lawyer. Israeli authorities have rejected his complaints over the incidents. Several attempts to secure his release through negotiations have failed. ^ \"Marwan Barghouti\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . ^ \"Profile: Marwan Barghouti\" . BBC News . 26 November 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2011. ^ Cite error: The named reference PCPSR-May2025 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :17 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Shulman, Robin (21 May 2004). \"Palestinian Leader Convicted in Israel\" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Foreman was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Scott, Georgia; Scott, Sophia (20 June 2022), Tomorrow's Freedom (Documentary), Cocoonfilms, Groundtruth Productions , retrieved 23 March 2025 ^ Kristof, Nicholas (12 November 2023). \"Opinion | In Israel and Gaza, Biden Needs to Do More to Build Peace -...\" The New York Times . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ \"Can Marwan Barghouti, the 'Palestinian Mandela', bring peace to Gaza?\" . France 24 . 4 November 2023 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Goat, Elliott; published, The Week UK (6 February 2024). \"Marwan Barghouti: the Palestinian hostage 'seen as Nelson Mandela' \" . theweek . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Al Jazeera Staff. \"Will Israel release Marwan Barghouti, the 'Palestinian Mandela'?\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Beaumont, Peter (27 May 2017). \"Mass Palestinian hunger strike in Israeli jails ends after visitation deal\" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ \"Israeli prison staff accused of assaulting Marwan Barghouti\" . The Guardian . Agence France-Presse. 28 October 2024. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ \"Marwan Barghouti, the world's most important prisoner\" . The Economist . 22 July 2024 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link )",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian politician (born 1959) Not to be confused with Mustafa Barghouti . Marwan Barghouti ( Arabic : مروان البرغوثي , romanized : Marwān al-Bargūṯiyy ; born 6 June 1959), sometimes known by the kunya Abu Al-Qassam ( أبو القسام ), is a Palestinian political leader who has served as an elected legislator and has been an advocate of a two-state solution since prior to his imprisonment by Israel . Barghouti led street protests and diplomatic initiatives until 2002, the early Second Intifada , when he was captured, convicted, and imprisoned by Israel on charges of involvement in deadly attacks that resulted in the deaths of five people. Barghouti declined to recognise the legitimacy of the court or enter a plea, but stated that he had no connection to the incidents for which he was convicted. An Inter-Parliamentary Union report found that Barghouti was not given a fair trial and questioned the quality of the evidence. Despite his imprisonment, Barghouti has consistently topped opinion polls asking Palestinians whom they would vote for in a Presidential election , ahead of both current Palestinian Authority president Mahmoud Abbas and leaders of Hamas . Several prominent supporters of a resumption of the Israel-Palestine peace process view Barghouti as the leader most able to unify the Palestinians and negotiate a compromise with Israel. He has been referred to as \"the Palestinian Mandela\". During his years in prison, Barghouti has continued to be politically active. He was an instigator and lead author of the 2006 Palestinian Prisoners' Document , which proposed a political path to a two-state solution, and secured support from Hamas . He has organised education for fellow inmates, and in 2017 led a hunger strike that led to increased visitation rights. Since October 2023 , he has been denied visits from his family and been severely beaten several times, leading to persistent damage to his health, according to his lawyer. Israeli authorities have rejected his complaints over the incidents. Several attempts to secure his release through negotiations have failed. ^ \"Marwan Barghouti\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . ^ \"Profile: Marwan Barghouti\" . BBC News . 26 November 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2011. ^ Cite error: The named reference PCPSR-May2025 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :17 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Shulman, Robin (21 May 2004). \"Palestinian Leader Convicted in Israel\" . The Washington Post . ISSN 0190-8286 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Foreman was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Scott, Georgia; Scott, Sophia (20 June 2022), Tomorrow's Freedom (Documentary), Cocoonfilms, Groundtruth Productions , retrieved 23 March 2025 ^ Kristof, Nicholas (12 November 2023). \"Opinion | In Israel and Gaza, Biden Needs to Do More to Build Peace -...\" The New York Times . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ \"Can Marwan Barghouti, the 'Palestinian Mandela', bring peace to Gaza?\" . France 24 . 4 November 2023 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Goat, Elliott; published, The Week UK (6 February 2024). \"Marwan Barghouti: the Palestinian hostage 'seen as Nelson Mandela' \" . theweek . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Al Jazeera Staff. \"Will Israel release Marwan Barghouti, the 'Palestinian Mandela'?\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ Beaumont, Peter (27 May 2017). \"Mass Palestinian hunger strike in Israeli jails ends after visitation deal\" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ \"Israeli prison staff accused of assaulting Marwan Barghouti\" . The Guardian . Agence France-Presse. 28 October 2024. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . ^ \"Marwan Barghouti, the world's most important prisoner\" . The Economist . 22 July 2024 . Retrieved 23 March 2025 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link )"
  },
  {
   "title": "Qasem Soleimani",
   "pageid": 16805217,
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   "lead_before": "Iranian military officer (1957–2020) For the Moroccan football player, see Kacem Slimani . Qasem Soleimani ( Persian : قاسم سلیمانی , romanized : Qâsem Soleymâni ; 11 March 1957 – 3 January 2020) was an Iranian military officer who served in the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). From 1998 until his assassination by the United States in 2020, he was the commander of the Quds Force , an IRGC division primarily responsible for extraterritorial and clandestine military operations , and played a key role in the Syrian civil war through securing Russian intervention . He was described as \"the single most powerful operative in the Middle East\" and a \"genius of asymmetric warfare \". Former Mossad director Yossi Cohen said Soleimani's strategies had \"personally tightened a noose around Israel's neck\". In his later years, he was considered by some analysts to be the right-hand man of the supreme leader of Iran , Ali Khamenei , and the second-most powerful person in Iran behind Khamenei. For attacks orchestrated or attempted against Americans and other targets abroad, Soleimani was personally sanctioned by the United Nations and the European Union , and was designated as a terrorist by the United States in 2005. Soleimani was assassinated in a targeted drone strike ordered by U.S. President Donald Trump on 3 January 2020 in Baghdad , Iraq. Iranian government officials publicly mourned Soleimani's death and launched missiles against U.S. military bases in Iraq , wounding 110 American troops. Iranian outlets subsequently represented Soleimani as a national hero. ^ Cite error: The named reference filkins was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference peak was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Qassem Suleimani not Just a Commander! – Taking a Closer Look at Religious Character of Iranian General\" . abna24. 10 March 2015. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 14 July 2016 . ^ شاهد| إسماعیل هنیة: قاسم سلیمانی “شهید القدس” ^ کتلت؛ غذایی محبوب که به نماد خشم گروهی از معترضان تبدیل شد ^ \"کتلت، خط قرمز جدیدی برای جمهوری اسلامی؛ بزرگداشت اجباری و حکومتی قاسم سلیمانی\" ^ Paraszczuk, Joanna (16 October 2014). \"Iran's 'Shadow Commander' Steps Into the Light\" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Kambiz Foroohar. \"Iran's Shadow Commander\" . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ \"Syria's Iranian Shadow Commander\" . RealClearWorld. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ \"Iran's 'shadow commander' steps into the spotlight\" . The Observers . Archived from the original on 8 July 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ \"Qasem Soleimani among those killed in Baghdad Airport attack – report\" . The Jerusalem Post . Reuters . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ \"Soleimani To Be Buried In Kerman After Ceremony Led By Khamenei In Tehran\" . RFE/RL . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC-50991810 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"General Soleimani receives Iran's highest Medal of Honor\" . Tehran Times . 11 March 2019. ^ \"عکس/ مدال های فرمانده نیروی قدس سپاه\" . 6 April 2013 . Retrieved 11 February 2015 . ^ Baranova, Maria (5 October 2016). \"Qasem Soleimani: Iran's 'architect' of Russian operations in Syria\" . Russia Beyond . ^ \"A nice war as reelection strategy\" . Chicago Sun-Times . 6 January 2020. ^ \"Qassem Soleimani, le Giap du Moyen-Orient\" . Oumma . 4 January 2020. ^ Sirrs, Owen L. (2022). Iran's Qods Force: Proxy Wars, Terrorism, and the War on America . ^ Cite error: The named reference nrc3Jan was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ U.S. killing of Iran's second most powerful man risks regional conflagration reuters.com ^ \"Was America's assassination of Qassem Suleimani justified?\" . The Economist . 7 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ Ali H. M. Abo Rezeg (3 January 2020). \"PROFILE—Who is Qasem Soleimani?\" . Anadolu Agency . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . Soleimani was declared a \"terrorist and supporter of terrorism\" by the U.S. He was among the Iranian individuals who were sanctioned by the UN Security Council resolution 1747 [...] on June 24, 2011, an official statement by the European Union said that European sanctions were imposed on three Iranian commanders of the Revolutionary Guards including Soleimani ^ He was designated as a terrorist by the United States and by the European Union (8 January 2020). \"Assertion: Iranian general Qassem Soleimani was in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the War\" . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. ^ Rikar Hussein; Mehdi Jedinia (8 April 2019). \"Factbox: Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps\" . Voice of America . Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . The United Nations and the European Union have refrained from designating the IRGC as a terror entity but have blacklisted key individuals of the force, including its leader Qasem Soleimani ^ \"Donald Trump kills General Qasem Soleimani\" . The Daily Telegraph (Sydney) . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . General Soleimani was a U.S.-designated terrorist ^ \"Trump Says Obama Designated Qassem Soleimani a Terrorist but 'Did Nothing About It' \" . 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. In 2011, the Obama administration sanctioned Soleimani for an alleged plot to assassinate the Saudi ambassador to the U.S. in Washington, D.C. ^ Jennifer Griffin; Lucas Tomlinson (6 August 2015). \"Exclusive: Quds Force commander Soleimani visited Moscow, met Russian leaders in defiance of sanctions\" . Fox . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . Soleimani was first designated a terrorist and sanctioned by the U.S. in 2005 for his role as a supporter of terrorism ^ Number of US troops wounded in Iran attack now at 110: Pentagon , ABS-CBN.com, 22 February 2020. ^ Singman, Brooke (8 January 2020). \"Trump says Iran 'appears to be standing down', missile strikes resulted in no casualties\" . Fox News . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 – via www.foxnews.com. ^ \"In major escalation, U.S. airstrike kills top Iranian commander Gen. Qassem Soleimani\" . Japan Times . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ \"Analysis | Trump's order to kill Soleimani is already starting to backfire\" . Washington Post . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Gallagher-Mohseni was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Zraick, Karen (3 January 2020). \"What to Know About the Death of Iranian General Suleimani\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 20 November 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Iranian military officer (1957–2020) For the Moroccan football player, see Kacem Slimani . Qasem Soleimani ( Persian : قاسم سلیمانی , romanized : Qâsem Soleymâni ; 11 March 1957 – 3 January 2020) was an Iranian military officer who served in the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). From 1998 until his assassination by the United States in 2020, he was the commander of the Quds Force , an IRGC division primarily responsible for extraterritorial and clandestine military operations , and played a key role in the Syrian civil war through securing Russian intervention . He was described as \"the single most powerful operative in the Middle East\" and a \"genius of asymmetric warfare \". Former Mossad director Yossi Cohen said Soleimani's strategies had \"personally tightened a noose around Israel's neck\". In his later years, he was considered by some analysts to be the right-hand man of the supreme leader of Iran , Ali Khamenei , and the second-most powerful person in Iran behind Khamenei. For attacks orchestrated or attempted against Americans and other targets abroad, Soleimani was personally sanctioned by the United Nations and the European Union , and was designated as a terrorist by the United States in 2005. Soleimani was assassinated in a targeted drone strike ordered by U.S. president Donald Trump on 3 January 2020 in Baghdad , Iraq. Iranian government officials publicly mourned Soleimani's death and launched missiles against U.S. military bases in Iraq , wounding 110 American troops. Iranian outlets subsequently represented Soleimani as a national hero. ^ Cite error: The named reference filkins was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference peak was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Qassem Suleimani not Just a Commander! – Taking a Closer Look at Religious Character of Iranian General\" . abna24. 10 March 2015. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 14 July 2016 . ^ Paraszczuk, Joanna (16 October 2014). \"Iran's 'Shadow Commander' Steps Into the Light\" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ Kambiz Foroohar. \"Iran's Shadow Commander\" . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ \"Syria's Iranian Shadow Commander\" . RealClearWorld. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ \"Iran's 'shadow commander' steps into the spotlight\" . The Observers . Archived from the original on 8 July 2015 . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . ^ \"Qasem Soleimani among those killed in Baghdad Airport attack – report\" . The Jerusalem Post . Reuters . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ \"Soleimani To Be Buried In Kerman After Ceremony Led By Khamenei In Tehran\" . RFE/RL . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC-50991810 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"General Soleimani receives Iran's highest Medal of Honor\" . Tehran Times . 11 March 2019. ^ \"عکس/ مدال های فرمانده نیروی قدس سپاه\" . 6 April 2013 . Retrieved 11 February 2015 . ^ Baranova, Maria (5 October 2016). \"Qasem Soleimani: Iran's 'architect' of Russian operations in Syria\" . Russia Beyond . ^ \"A nice war as reelection strategy\" . Chicago Sun-Times . 6 January 2020. ^ \"Qassem Soleimani, le Giap du Moyen-Orient\" . Oumma . 4 January 2020. ^ Sirrs, Owen L. (2022). Iran's Qods Force: Proxy Wars, Terrorism, and the War on America . ^ Cite error: The named reference nrc3Jan was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ U.S. killing of Iran's second most powerful man risks regional conflagration reuters.com ^ \"Was America's assassination of Qassem Suleimani justified?\" . The Economist . 7 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 12 January 2020 . ^ Ali H. M. Abo Rezeg (3 January 2020). \"PROFILE—Who is Qasem Soleimani?\" . Anadolu Agency . Archived from the original on 4 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . Soleimani was declared a \"terrorist and supporter of terrorism\" by the U.S. He was among the Iranian individuals who were sanctioned by the UN Security Council resolution 1747 [...] on June 24, 2011, an official statement by the European Union said that European sanctions were imposed on three Iranian commanders of the Revolutionary Guards including Soleimani ^ He was designated as a terrorist by the United States and by the European Union (8 January 2020). \"Assertion: Iranian general Qassem Soleimani was in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the War\" . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. ^ Rikar Hussein; Mehdi Jedinia (8 April 2019). \"Factbox: Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps\" . Voice of America . Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . The United Nations and the European Union have refrained from designating the IRGC as a terror entity but have blacklisted key individuals of the force, including its leader Qasem Soleimani ^ \"Donald Trump kills General Qasem Soleimani\" . The Daily Telegraph (Sydney) . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . General Soleimani was a U.S.-designated terrorist ^ \"Trump Says Obama Designated Qassem Soleimani a Terrorist but 'Did Nothing About It' \" . 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. In 2011, the Obama administration sanctioned Soleimani for an alleged plot to assassinate the Saudi ambassador to the U.S. in Washington, D.C. ^ Jennifer Griffin; Lucas Tomlinson (6 August 2015). \"Exclusive: Quds Force commander Soleimani visited Moscow, met Russian leaders in defiance of sanctions\" . Fox . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 . Soleimani was first designated a terrorist and sanctioned by the U.S. in 2005 for his role as a supporter of terrorism ^ Number of US troops wounded in Iran attack now at 110: Pentagon , ABS-CBN.com, 22 February 2020. ^ Singman, Brooke (8 January 2020). \"Trump says Iran 'appears to be standing down', missile strikes resulted in no casualties\" . Fox News . Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 . Retrieved 8 January 2020 – via www.foxnews.com. ^ \"In major escalation, U.S. airstrike kills top Iranian commander Gen. Qassem Soleimani\" . Japan Times . 3 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ \"Analysis | Trump's order to kill Soleimani is already starting to backfire\" . Washington Post . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 7 January 2020 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Gallagher-Mohseni was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Zraick, Karen (3 January 2020). \"What to Know About the Death of Iranian General Suleimani\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 20 November 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Axis of Resistance",
   "pageid": 36658251,
   "revid_before": 1361931348,
   "revid_after": 1366472358,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-28T05:48:01Z",
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   "lead_before": "Iran-led military coalition in West Asia The Axis of Resistance or Resistance Front is an informal Iran -led military coalition that operates across West Asia . It currently unites a variety of armed groups allied with Iran and committed primarily to countering the influence of Iran's rivals in the region: the United States , Israel , Saudi Arabia , the United Arab Emirates , and sometimes Turkey . It is supported by North Korea and Venezuela and formerly included Syria , which hosted both Iranian troops and allied non-Iranian fighters until the fall of the Assad regime in 2024. The \"Axis\" in question mainly consists of Shia Islamist militant organizations , such as Hezbollah in Lebanon, the Islamic Resistance and the Popular Mobilization Forces in Iraq, and the Houthis in Yemen. It intermittently includes certain Palestinian militant organizations (typically Sunni Islamist ), such as Hamas and Islamic Jihad . Iran's continued support for this coalition is said to be motivated in part by a desire to keep confrontations away from its borders as part of its \"forward defence\" philosophy, which pursue domestic interests while collectively mobilizing for a shared broader goal of militarily exhausting Israel and imposing a cost on United States foreign policy in the Middle East . The United States designates most of the coalition's members as terrorist organizations , but between 2014 and 2017, the United States military and Iranian proxy forces under Qasem Soleimani effectively conducted their offensives in unison during the War against the Islamic State . On several occasions, the Axis of Resistance has carried out direct attacks on United States troops in Iraq . Through the Quds Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps , the Iranian government had been spending an estimated US$700 million annually on providing extensive military and logistical support to the coalition's members, but this expenditure began dwindling after 2019 as a result of international sanctions against Iran . The Middle Eastern crisis , which began with the October 7 attacks against Israel in 2023, has weakened the Axis of Resistance and the strategy behind it, according to an analysis by the Associated Press . The network suffered significant and repeated setbacks to Israeli military operations over the course of the Gaza war , the Israel–Hezbollah conflict , and the Twelve-Day War . It was also greatly disrupted by the 2024 Syrian opposition offensives , which entirely reversed the progress of the Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war . The rest of the Axis of Resistance remains intact as of December 2024 . ^ \"Iran rejects claims of involvement in Syria violence\" . Al Arabiya English . 2025-10-03 . Retrieved 2026-04-03 . ^ \"جبهه مقاومت\" . Khamenei.ir (in Persian). Archived from the original on 2024-09-30 . Retrieved 2024-01-19 . ^ \"Iran's post-war pivot to 'economy first' stirs hardline backlash\" . Amwaj.media . June 22, 2026 . Retrieved 2026-06-26 . The term \"Resistance Front\"—or 'Axis of Resistance'—refers to Iran's network of regional allies. This includes Lebanese Hezbollah, Yemen's Ansarullah movement—better known as the Houthis, and armed factions in Iraq. ^ Al-Kassab, Fatima (26 October 2023). \"What is the 'axis of resistance' of Iran-backed groups in the Middle East?\" . NPR . Archived from the original on 29 October 2023 . Retrieved 30 October 2023 . ^ Hubbard, Ben; Rubin, Alissa J. (30 September 2024). \"Facing a Big Test, Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' Flails\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 9 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 October 2024 . ^ \"The shape-shifting 'axis of resistance' \" . Chatham House . 2025-06-11. Archived from the original on 2026-02-24 . Retrieved 2026-03-03 . ^ \"The Evolving Middle Eastern Regional Order: Türkiye-Iraq Relations in Context\" . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . 2026-02-18 . Retrieved 2026-03-03 . ^ Ali-Khan, Veena (2025-03-19). \"Down but Not Out: Reassessing the Axis of Resistance\" . The Century Foundation . Retrieved 2026-03-30 . ^ J. Rubin, Alissa; Hubbard, Ben; Gamio, Lazaro (1 October 2024). \"What to Know About the Axis of Resistance, the Iran-backed Militia Network\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 30 September 2024 . Retrieved 2 October 2024 . ^ \"Flexible Resistance: How Hezbollah and Hamas Are Mending Ties\" . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . Archived from the original on 2025-05-04 . Retrieved 2024-09-28 . ^ \"What links Hamas to the 'Axis of Resistance' and Iran as its patron?\" . The Irish Times . Archived from the original on 2024-12-26 . Retrieved 2024-09-28 . ^ \"Iran backs Assad as Syrian forces choke off Aleppo\" . Reuters . 7 August 2012. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023 . Retrieved 7 August 2012 . ^ \"Iran: Syria part of 'axis of resistance' \" . CNN . 7 August 2012. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020 . Retrieved 7 August 2012 . ^ Cite error: The named reference crisisgroup20100802 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Evolution under fire: Iran's 'axis of resistance' in a post-war era\" . Al Jazeera . 30 June 2026. ^ Cite error: The named reference soufancenter was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"As Israel and the US Attack Iran, the 'Axis of Resistance' Remains on the Sidelines\" . Stimson Center . 2025-06-23 . Retrieved 2026-05-23 . The strategic logic behind building this network was both offensive and defensive. Offensively, Iran aimed to project influence across the region and counterbalance the presence of rival powers. Defensively, Tehran recognized the asymmetry in conventional military power between itself and Israel and the United States. By relying on partners, Iran sought to build a deterrent force that could absorb pressure and retaliate in the event of a direct attack. These militias were intended not just as strategic buffers, but as integral parts of Iran's deterrence doctrine. ^ Arango, Tim (13 Jan 2020). \"Qassim Suleimani, Master of Iran's Intrigue, Built a Shiite Axis of Power in Mideast\" . The New York Times . New York Times . Retrieved 5 May 2024 . \"... that conflict, from 2014 through 2017, was a rare instance of Iran and the United States nominally fighting on the same side. On a number of occasions, Americans were hitting Islamic State targets from the air while General Suleimani was directing ground forces against the militants. {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Bengali, Shashank. \"In Iraq, residents of Amerli celebrate end of militant siege\" . Archived from the original on 2014-09-05. Amerli's teachers, farmers, police officers and white-collar professionals took up arms to defend their homes for nearly three months, but the Islamic State fighters weren't flushed out until Monday, after a major, two-day operation by an unusual partnership of Iraqi and Kurdish soldiers, Iranian-backed Shiite militias and U.S. warplanes. ^ Cite error: The named reference Master of Iran's was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"What is Iran's axis of resistance?\" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on 2024-10-02 . Retrieved 2024-10-02 . ^ \"Analysis: Collapse of Syria's Assad is a blow to Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' \" . AP News . 2024-12-08. Archived from the original on 2024-12-24 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . ^ \"Will Iran Become More Dangerous After Assad's Ouster in Syria?\" . Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 2024-12-12 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . ^ Rubin, Alissa J. (2024-12-08). \"With Assad's Fall, Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' Unravels\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 2024-12-09 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . ^ \"Iran Suffers Blow of 'Historic Proportions' With Assad's Fall\" . The Wall Street Journal . 2024-12-09. Archived from the original on 2024-12-10 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . ^ \"Fall of Assad in Syria deals serious blow to Iran's axis of resistance\" . The Washington Post . 2024-12-10. Archived from the original on 2024-12-09 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Iran-led military coalition in West Asia The Axis of Resistance or Resistance Front is an informal Iran -led military coalition that operates across West Asia . It currently unites a variety of armed groups allied with Iran and committed primarily to countering the influence of Iran's rivals in the region: the United States , Israel , Saudi Arabia , the United Arab Emirates , and sometimes Turkey . It is supported by North Korea and Venezuela and formerly included Syria , which hosted both Iranian troops and allied non-Iranian fighters until the fall of the Assad regime in 2024. The \"Axis\" in question mainly consists of Shia Islamist militant organizations , such as Hezbollah in Lebanon, the Islamic Resistance and the Popular Mobilization Forces in Iraq, and the Houthis in Yemen. It intermittently includes certain Palestinian militant organizations (typically Sunni Islamist ), such as Hamas and Islamic Jihad . Iran's continued support for this coalition is said to be motivated in part by a desire to keep confrontations away from its borders as part of its \"forward defence\" philosophy, which pursue domestic interests while collectively mobilizing for a shared broader goal of militarily exhausting Israel and imposing a cost on United States foreign policy in the Middle East . The United States designates most of the coalition's members as terrorist organizations , but between 2014 and 2017, the United States military and Iranian proxy forces under Qasem Soleimani effectively conducted their offensives in unison during the War against the Islamic State . On several occasions, the Axis of Resistance has carried out direct attacks on United States troops in Iraq . Through the Quds Force of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps , the Iranian government had been spending an estimated US$700 million annually on providing extensive military and logistical support to the coalition's members, but this expenditure began dwindling after 2019 as a result of international sanctions against Iran . The Middle Eastern crisis , which began with the October 7 attacks against Israel in 2023, has weakened the Axis of Resistance and the strategy behind it, according to an analysis by the Associated Press . The network suffered significant and repeated setbacks to Israeli military operations over the course of the Gaza war , the Israel–Hezbollah conflict , and the Twelve-Day War . It was also greatly disrupted by the 2024 Syrian opposition offensives , which entirely reversed the progress of the Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war . The rest of the Axis of Resistance remains intact as of December 2024 . ^ \"جبهه مقاومت\" . Khamenei.ir (in Persian). Archived from the original on 2024-09-30 . Retrieved 2024-01-19 . ^ \"Iran's post-war pivot to 'economy first' stirs hardline backlash\" . Amwaj.media . June 22, 2026 . Retrieved 2026-06-26 . The term \"Resistance Front\"—or 'Axis of Resistance'—refers to Iran's network of regional allies. This includes Lebanese Hezbollah, Yemen's Ansarullah movement—better known as the Houthis, and armed factions in Iraq. ^ Al-Kassab, Fatima (26 October 2023). \"What is the 'axis of resistance' of Iran-backed groups in the Middle East?\" . NPR . Archived from the original on 29 October 2023 . Retrieved 30 October 2023 . ^ Hubbard, Ben; Rubin, Alissa J. (30 September 2024). \"Facing a Big Test, Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' Flails\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 9 October 2024 . Retrieved 2 October 2024 . ^ \"The shape-shifting 'axis of resistance' \" . Chatham House . 2025-06-11. Archived from the original on 2026-02-24 . Retrieved 2026-03-03 . ^ \"The Evolving Middle Eastern Regional Order: Türkiye-Iraq Relations in Context\" . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . 2026-02-18 . Retrieved 2026-03-03 . ^ Ali-Khan, Veena (2025-03-19). \"Down but Not Out: Reassessing the Axis of Resistance\" . The Century Foundation . Retrieved 2026-03-30 . ^ J. Rubin, Alissa; Hubbard, Ben; Gamio, Lazaro (1 October 2024). \"What to Know About the Axis of Resistance, the Iran-backed Militia Network\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 30 September 2024 . Retrieved 2 October 2024 . ^ \"Flexible Resistance: How Hezbollah and Hamas Are Mending Ties\" . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . Archived from the original on 2025-05-04 . Retrieved 2024-09-28 . ^ \"What links Hamas to the 'Axis of Resistance' and Iran as its patron?\" . The Irish Times . Archived from the original on 2024-12-26 . Retrieved 2024-09-28 . ^ \"Iran backs Assad as Syrian forces choke off Aleppo\" . Reuters . 7 August 2012. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023 . Retrieved 7 August 2012 . ^ \"Iran: Syria part of 'axis of resistance' \" . CNN . 7 August 2012. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020 . Retrieved 7 August 2012 . ^ Cite error: The named reference crisisgroup20100802 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Evolution under fire: Iran's 'axis of resistance' in a post-war era\" . Al Jazeera . 30 June 2026. ^ Cite error: The named reference soufancenter was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"As Israel and the US Attack Iran, the 'Axis of Resistance' Remains on the Sidelines\" . Stimson Center . 2025-06-23 . Retrieved 2026-05-23 . The strategic logic behind building this network was both offensive and defensive. Offensively, Iran aimed to project influence across the region and counterbalance the presence of rival powers. Defensively, Tehran recognized the asymmetry in conventional military power between itself and Israel and the United States. By relying on partners, Iran sought to build a deterrent force that could absorb pressure and retaliate in the event of a direct attack. These militias were intended not just as strategic buffers, but as integral parts of Iran's deterrence doctrine. ^ Arango, Tim (13 Jan 2020). \"Qassim Suleimani, Master of Iran's Intrigue, Built a Shiite Axis of Power in Mideast\" . The New York Times . New York Times . Retrieved 5 May 2024 . \"... that conflict, from 2014 through 2017, was a rare instance of Iran and the United States nominally fighting on the same side. On a number of occasions, Americans were hitting Islamic State targets from the air while General Suleimani was directing ground forces against the militants. {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Bengali, Shashank. \"In Iraq, residents of Amerli celebrate end of militant siege\" . Archived from the original on 2014-09-05. Amerli's teachers, farmers, police officers and white-collar professionals took up arms to defend their homes for nearly three months, but the Islamic State fighters weren't flushed out until Monday, after a major, two-day operation by an unusual partnership of Iraqi and Kurdish soldiers, Iranian-backed Shiite militias and U.S. warplanes. ^ Cite error: The named reference Master of Iran's was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"What is Iran's axis of resistance?\" . The Economist . ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on 2024-10-02 . Retrieved 2024-10-02 . ^ \"Analysis: Collapse of Syria's Assad is a blow to Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' \" . AP News . 2024-12-08. Archived from the original on 2024-12-24 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . ^ \"Will Iran Become More Dangerous After Assad's Ouster in Syria?\" . Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 2024-12-12 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . ^ Rubin, Alissa J. (2024-12-08). \"With Assad's Fall, Iran's 'Axis of Resistance' Unravels\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 2024-12-09 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . ^ \"Iran Suffers Blow of 'Historic Proportions' With Assad's Fall\" . The Wall Street Journal . 2024-12-09. Archived from the original on 2024-12-10 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . ^ \"Fall of Assad in Syria deals serious blow to Iran's axis of resistance\" . The Washington Post . 2024-12-10. Archived from the original on 2024-12-09 . Retrieved 2024-12-10 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
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   "title": "Ismail Haniyeh",
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   "lead_before": "Palestinian politician (c.1962–2024) Ismail Haniyeh ( Arabic : إسماعيل هنية , romanized : Ismāʿīl Haniyyah , pronunciation ; 29 January 1962 – 31 July 2024) was a Palestinian politician who served as third chairman of the Hamas Political Bureau from May 2017 until his assassination in July 2024. He also served as the prime minister of the Palestinian National Authority from March 2006 until June 2014 and the first Hamas leader in the Gaza Strip from June 2007 until February 2017, where he was succeeded by Yahya Sinwar . Haniyeh was born in the al-Shati refugee camp in the then Egyptian-administered Gaza Strip in 1962 or 1963, to parents who were expelled or fled from Al-Jura (now part of Ashkelon ) during the 1948 Palestine war . He earned a bachelor's degree in Arabic literature from the Islamic University of Gaza in 1987, where he first became involved with Hamas, which was formed during the First Intifada against the Israeli occupation . His involvement led to his imprisonment for three short periods after participating in protests. After his release in 1992, he was exiled to Lebanon, returning a year later to become a dean at Gaza's Islamic University. Haniyeh was appointed to head a Hamas office in 1997 and subsequently rose in the ranks of the organization. Haniyeh was head of the Hamas list that won the Palestinian legislative elections of 2006 , which campaigned on armed resistance against Israel, and so became Prime Minister of the State of Palestine . However, Mahmoud Abbas, the Palestinian president , dismissed Haniyeh from office on 14 June 2007. Due to the then-ongoing Fatah–Hamas conflict , Haniyeh did not acknowledge Abbas' decree and continued to exercise prime ministerial authority in the Gaza Strip . Haniyeh was the leader of Hamas in the Gaza Strip from 2006 until February 2017, when he was replaced by Yahya Sinwar. Haniyeh was seen by many diplomats as one of the more pragmatic and moderate figures in Hamas. From 2017 until his assassination in 2024, he had mostly lived in Qatar . On 6 May 2017, Haniyeh was elected chairman of Hamas's Political Bureau, replacing Khaled Mashal ; at the time, Haniyeh relocated from the Gaza Strip to Qatar. Under his tenure, Hamas launched the October 7 attacks , and subsequently Israel declared its intention to assassinate all Hamas leaders. In May 2024, Karim Khan , the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court , announced his intention to apply for an arrest warrant for Haniyeh, and other Hamas leaders, for war crimes and crimes against humanity , as part of the ICC investigation in Palestine . On 31 July 2024, Haniyeh was assassinated by an explosive device planted in his guesthouse in Tehran , likely by Israeli Mossad agents. At the time of his death, he had been leading cease-fire negotiations with Israel for Hamas. ^ https://www.jstribune.com/svetlova-who-was-ismail-haniyeh/ ^ \"The Palestinians try to reconcile\" . The Economist . 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2024 . ^ https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2236219&Language=en ^ \"Israel war on Gaza updates: Regional tensions rise as Haniyeh laid to rest\" . Al Jazeera . 2 August 2024. Archived from the original on 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 3 August 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Guardian Obituary was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Hazem Amir Muhammad was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ EP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Ismail Haniyeh\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 31 July 2024. Archived from the original on 1 August 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . born 1962? ^ Cite error: The named reference F24 Abdel Salam was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Alshawabkeh, Lina (17 October 2023). \"Who are the leaders of Hamas?\" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 19 October 2023 . Retrieved 19 February 2024 . ^ Jazaeri, Iliya. \"Who Was Slain Hamas Leader Ismail Haniyeh?\" . RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty . Archived from the original on 2 August 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2024 . ^ Vinall, Frances (31 July 2024). \"What to know about Ismail Haniyeh, the Hamas leader killed in Iran\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 31 July 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . Haniyeh was born in January 1963, according to the Hamas media office [...] ^ Livni, Ephrat; Abdulrahim, Raja (31 July 2024). \"Ismail Haniyeh, a Top Hamas Leader, Is Dead at 62\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 31 July 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . Mr. Haniyeh was born in 1962 [...] ^ Fischbach, Michael R. \"Haniyeh, Ismail\" . encyclopedia.com . Archived from the original on 31 July 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . Haniyeh was born in 1962 (some sources say January 1963) [...] ^ Cite error: The named reference bbcprofile was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference tbt was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Who was Ismail Haniyeh, the Hamas political leader killed in Tehran?\" . CNN . 31 July 2024. Archived from the original on 6 August 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . ^ \"Abbas sacks Hamas-led government\" . BBC News . 14 June 2007. Archived from the original on 27 August 2007 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference r111 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Ismail Haniyeh\" . Counter Extremism Project . Archived from the original on 28 October 2023 . Retrieved 28 October 2023 . ^ \"Ex-Gaza leader Haniyeh reportedly to replace Mashaal as Hamas head\" . The Times of Israel . 5 September 2016. Archived from the original on 14 October 2023 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Akram, Fares (7 May 2017). \"Hamas says Ismail Haniyeh chosen as Islamic group's leader\" . Yahoo News . Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 May 2017 . Retrieved 7 May 2017 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Khan, Karim A.A. (20 May 2024). \"Statement of ICC Prosecutor Karim A.A. Khan KC: Applications for arrest warrants in the situation in the State of Palestine\" . icc-cpi.int . International Criminal Court. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ Ray, Siladitya (20 May 2024). \"ICC Seeks Arrest Warrants For Benjamin Netanyahu And Hamas Leader Yahya Sinwar\" . Forbes . Retrieved 22 May 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Kottasová, Ivana (20 May 2024). \"EXCLUSIVE: ICC seeks arrest warrants against Sinwar and Netanyahu for war crimes over October 7 attack and Gaza war\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ Graham-Harrison, Emma; Kierszenbaum, Quique; McKernan, Bethan; Christou, William (31 July 2024). \"Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh killed in raid on Iran residence, says Palestinian group\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference nytbombplot was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Chen, Laurie; Al-Mughrabi, Nidal (24 July 2024). \"China brokers Palestinian unity deal, but doubts persist\" . Reuters . Retrieved 4 August 2024 . Israel dismisses deal, says Hamas rule in Gaza will be crushed ^ \"How Hamas and Iran will respond to the assassinations of top Hamas leaders\" . August 2024. Archived from the original on 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 4 August 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian politician (c.1962–2024) Ismail Haniyeh ( Arabic : إسماعيل هنية , romanized : Ismāʿīl Haniyyah , pronunciation ; 29 January 1962 – 31 July 2024) was a Palestinian politician who served as third chairman of the Hamas Political Bureau from May 2017 until his assassination in July 2024. He also served as the prime minister of the Palestinian National Authority from March 2006 until June 2014 and the first Hamas leader in the Gaza Strip from June 2007 until February 2017, where he was succeeded by Yahya Sinwar . Haniyeh was born in the al-Shati refugee camp in the then Egyptian-administered Gaza Strip in 1962 or 1963, to parents who were expelled or fled from Al-Jura (now part of Ashkelon ) during the 1948 Palestine war . He earned a bachelor's degree in Arabic literature from the Islamic University of Gaza in 1987, where he first became involved with Hamas, which was formed during the First Intifada against the Israeli occupation . His involvement led to his imprisonment for three short periods after participating in protests. After his release in 1992, he was exiled to Lebanon, returning a year later to become a dean at Gaza's Islamic University. Haniyeh was appointed to head a Hamas office in 1997 and subsequently rose in the ranks of the organization. Haniyeh was head of the Hamas list that won the Palestinian legislative elections of 2006 , which campaigned on armed resistance against Israel, and so became Prime Minister of the State of Palestine . However, Mahmoud Abbas, the Palestinian president , dismissed Haniyeh from office on 14 June 2007. Due to the then-ongoing Fatah–Hamas conflict , Haniyeh did not acknowledge Abbas' decree and continued to exercise prime ministerial authority in the Gaza Strip . Haniyeh was the leader of Hamas in the Gaza Strip from 2006 until February 2017, when he was replaced by Yahya Sinwar. Haniyeh was seen by many diplomats as one of the more pragmatic and moderate figures in Hamas. From 2017 until his assassination in 2024, he had mostly lived in Qatar . On 6 May 2017, Haniyeh was elected chairman of Hamas's Political Bureau, replacing Khaled Mashal ; at the time, Haniyeh relocated from the Gaza Strip to Qatar. Under his tenure, Hamas launched the October 7 attacks , and subsequently Israel declared its intention to assassinate all Hamas leaders. In May 2024, Karim Khan , the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court , announced his intention to apply for an arrest warrant for Haniyeh, and other Hamas leaders, for war crimes and crimes against humanity , as part of the ICC investigation in Palestine . On 31 July 2024, Haniyeh was assassinated by an explosive device planted in his guesthouse in Tehran , likely by Israeli Mossad agents. At the time of his death, he had been leading cease-fire negotiations with Israel for Hamas. ^ \"Who was Ismail Haniyeh?\" . 5 August 2024. ^ \"The Palestinians try to reconcile\" . The Economist . 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018 . Retrieved 3 August 2024 . ^ \"Israel war on Gaza updates: Regional tensions rise as Haniyeh laid to rest\" . Al Jazeera . 2 August 2024. Archived from the original on 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 3 August 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Guardian Obituary was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Hazem Amir Muhammad was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ EP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Ismail Haniyeh\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 31 July 2024. Archived from the original on 1 August 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . born 1962? ^ Cite error: The named reference F24 Abdel Salam was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Alshawabkeh, Lina (17 October 2023). \"Who are the leaders of Hamas?\" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 19 October 2023 . Retrieved 19 February 2024 . ^ Jazaeri, Iliya. \"Who Was Slain Hamas Leader Ismail Haniyeh?\" . RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty . Archived from the original on 2 August 2024 . Retrieved 2 August 2024 . ^ Vinall, Frances (31 July 2024). \"What to know about Ismail Haniyeh, the Hamas leader killed in Iran\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 31 July 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . Haniyeh was born in January 1963, according to the Hamas media office [...] ^ Livni, Ephrat; Abdulrahim, Raja (31 July 2024). \"Ismail Haniyeh, a Top Hamas Leader, Is Dead at 62\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 31 July 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . Mr. Haniyeh was born in 1962 [...] ^ Fischbach, Michael R. \"Haniyeh, Ismail\" . encyclopedia.com . Archived from the original on 31 July 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . Haniyeh was born in 1962 (some sources say January 1963) [...] ^ Cite error: The named reference bbcprofile was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference tbt was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Who was Ismail Haniyeh, the Hamas political leader killed in Tehran?\" . CNN . 31 July 2024. Archived from the original on 6 August 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . ^ \"Abbas sacks Hamas-led government\" . BBC News . 14 June 2007. Archived from the original on 27 August 2007 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference r111 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Ismail Haniyeh\" . Counter Extremism Project . Archived from the original on 28 October 2023 . Retrieved 28 October 2023 . ^ \"Ex-Gaza leader Haniyeh reportedly to replace Mashaal as Hamas head\" . The Times of Israel . 5 September 2016. Archived from the original on 14 October 2023 . Retrieved 25 June 2024 . ^ Akram, Fares (7 May 2017). \"Hamas says Ismail Haniyeh chosen as Islamic group's leader\" . Yahoo News . Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 May 2017 . Retrieved 7 May 2017 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Khan, Karim A.A. (20 May 2024). \"Statement of ICC Prosecutor Karim A.A. Khan KC: Applications for arrest warrants in the situation in the State of Palestine\" . icc-cpi.int . International Criminal Court. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ Ray, Siladitya (20 May 2024). \"ICC Seeks Arrest Warrants For Benjamin Netanyahu And Hamas Leader Yahya Sinwar\" . Forbes . Retrieved 22 May 2024 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Kottasová, Ivana (20 May 2024). \"EXCLUSIVE: ICC seeks arrest warrants against Sinwar and Netanyahu for war crimes over October 7 attack and Gaza war\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ Graham-Harrison, Emma; Kierszenbaum, Quique; McKernan, Bethan; Christou, William (31 July 2024). \"Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh killed in raid on Iran residence, says Palestinian group\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference nytbombplot was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Chen, Laurie; Al-Mughrabi, Nidal (24 July 2024). \"China brokers Palestinian unity deal, but doubts persist\" . Reuters . Retrieved 4 August 2024 . Israel dismisses deal, says Hamas rule in Gaza will be crushed ^ \"How Hamas and Iran will respond to the assassinations of top Hamas leaders\" . August 2024. Archived from the original on 4 August 2024 . Retrieved 4 August 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Council on American–Islamic Relations",
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   "lead_before": "American Muslim advocacy group The Council on American–Islamic Relations ( CAIR ) is a Muslim civil rights and advocacy group . It is headquartered on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. , with regional offices nationwide. Through civil rights actions, media relations, civic engagement, and education, CAIR works to promote social, legal and political activism among Muslims in the United States . ^ Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) on the C-SPAN Networks.org website Archived October 30, 2020, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved October 10, 2020 ^ Relations, Council on American-Islamic. \"CAIR: 280 Delegates Lobby Congress on 'Historic' First National Muslim Advocacy Day\" (Press release). Archived from the original on December 1, 2017 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ Oliver Ortega (February 2, 2017). \"What You Can Do: Council on American-Islamic Relations\" . The Progressive (magazine) . Archived from the original on October 10, 2020 . Retrieved October 10, 2020 . ^ \"Staff\" . CAIR-NY. 2022. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023 . Retrieved November 20, 2023 . ^ \"Civil Rights Organizations — The Civil Rights Project at UCLA\" . The Civil Rights Project (UCLA) website . Archived from the original on August 4, 2017 . Retrieved November 28, 2016 . ^ Du, Susan. \"Mystery letter to civil rights group threatens eradication of Islam – City Pages\" . City Pages . Archived from the original on June 19, 2018 . Retrieved November 28, 2016 . ^ Aoude, Safia. \"Islam Matters – How the Council on American Islamic Relations (CAIR) promotes the legitimacy of American Muslims\" . University of Copenhagen – via Academia.edu.",
   "lead_after": "American Muslim advocacy group The Council on American–Islamic Relations ( CAIR ) is a Muslim civil rights and advocacy group . It is headquartered on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. , with regional offices nationwide. Through civil rights actions, media relations, civic engagement, and education, CAIR works to promote social, legal and political activism among Muslims in the United States . ^ Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) on the C-SPAN Networks.org website Archived October 30, 2020, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved October 10, 2020 ^ Relations, Council on American-Islamic. \"CAIR: 280 Delegates Lobby Congress on 'Historic' First National Muslim Advocacy Day\" (Press release). Archived from the original on December 1, 2017 . Retrieved October 20, 2015 . ^ Oliver Ortega (February 2, 2017). \"What You Can Do: Council on American-Islamic Relations\" . The Progressive (magazine) . Archived from the original on October 10, 2020 . Retrieved October 10, 2020 . ^ \"Staff\" . CAIR-NY. 2022. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023 . Retrieved November 20, 2023 . ^ \"Civil Rights Organizations — The Civil Rights Project at UCLA\" . The Civil Rights Project (UCLA) website . Archived from the original on August 4, 2017 . Retrieved November 28, 2016 . ^ Du, Susan. \"Mystery letter to civil rights group threatens eradication of Islam – City Pages\" . City Pages . Archived from the original on June 19, 2018 . Retrieved November 28, 2016 . ^ Aoude, Safia. \"Islam Matters – How the Council on American Islamic Relations (CAIR) promotes the legitimacy of American Muslims\" . University of Copenhagen – via Academia.edu."
  },
  {
   "title": "Palestine Liberation Organization",
   "pageid": 24324,
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   "lead_before": "Official representative of Palestinians \"PLO\" redirects here. For other uses, see PLO (disambiguation) . Personal Early life Compound Death conspiracy theories Suha Arafat (wife) Palestine Liberation Organization Chairman (1969–2004) PLO in Lebanon Pre-presidency War of Attrition Battle of Karameh Black September Insurgency in South Lebanon First Intifada Operation Wooden Leg Lebanese Civil War Battle of the Hotels Aishiyeh massacres Chekka massacre 1978 South Lebanon conflict Battle of Zahleh 1982 Lebanon War Battle of Tripoli War of the Camps Battle of Sidon 1st President of Palestine Israeli–Palestinian conflict Oslo Accords 2000 Camp David Summit Second Intifada Elections 1996 v t e The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ; Arabic : منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية , romanized : Munaẓẓamat at-Taḥrīr al-Filasṭīniyyah ) is a Palestinian nationalist coalition that is internationally recognized as the official representative of the Palestinian people in the occupied Palestinian territories . It is currently represented by the Palestinian Authority based in the West Bank city of Al-Bireh . Founded in 1964, it initially sought to establish an Arab state over the entire territory of the former Mandatory Palestine , advocating the elimination of Israel . Mediated talks between the Israeli government and the PLO in 1993 (the Oslo I Accord) resulted in the PLO recognizing Israel's legitimacy and accepting United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 , which mandated Israel's withdrawal from occupied territories, while Israel recognized the PLO as a legitimate authority representing the Palestinian people. Despite the Israel–PLO Letters of Mutual Recognition (1993), in which PLO leader Yasser Arafat renounced violence against Israel, the PLO engaged in militant activities during the Second Intifada (2000–2005). On 29 October 2018, the PLO Central Council suspended the Palestinian recognition of Israel . As the officially recognized government of the State of Palestine , it has enjoyed United Nations observer status since 1974. Prior to the Oslo Accords , the PLO's militant wings engaged in acts of violence against both the Israeli military and civilians, within Israel and abroad. The United States designated it as a terrorist group in 1987, though a presidential waiver has permitted American–PLO contact since 1988. ^ \"Arabs Create Organization For Recovery of Palestine\" . The New York Times . Reuters. 29 May 1964. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023 . Retrieved 22 July 2018 . The creation of Palestine liberation organization was announced today... ^ Sawafta, Ali (30 November 2010). \"In West Bank, Ramallah looks ever more like capital\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 14 February 2023 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Toameh, Khaled Abu (24 November 2010). \"Abbas: Referendum law is 'obstacle to peace' \" . Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 . Retrieved 27 October 2023 . ^ Szekely, Ora (26 November 2016). The Politics of Militant Group Survival in the Middle East: Resources, Relationships, and Resistance . Springer. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-319-40141-6 . ^ Spyer, Jonathan (1 January 2011). The Transforming Fire: The Rise of the Israel-Islamist Conflict . A&C Black. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-4411-6663-0 . ^ \"Quién fue Yasser Arafat?\" . 17 March 2019. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ Grafton, David D. (16 March 2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East . Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7 . ^ Lieber, Dov (15 January 2018). \"Rewriting history, Abbas calls Israel a 'colonial project' unrelated to Judaism\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 26 June 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ \"Jailed PFLP Leader: Only a One-state Solution Is Possible\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 23 July 2022 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ \"Fatah spokesperson talks about the potential for a two-state solution in Palestine\" . NPR . 22 September 2025 . Retrieved 18 October 2025 . ^ Ora Szekely, ed. (2016). The Politics of Militant Group Survival in the Middle East: Resources, Relationships, and Resistance . Springer International Publishing. p. 54. To balance against their rivals, the Gulf states tended to back the comparatively conservative Fatah. ^ \"The Left Has Played a Key Role in the Palestinian Struggle\" . Jacobin . 2 July 2024 . Retrieved 18 October 2025 . Today's absence of a progressive option between two conservative nationalist parties, Fatah and Hamas, contributes to the impasse that Palestinians face in terms of political initiative. ^ Robert O Freedman, ed. (9 July 2019). The Middle East Since Camp David . Taylor & Francis . By 1969 (the year Arafat assumed chairmanship of the PLO/EC and Fatah moved to unite the PLO) the corporate identities of the various groups were already becoming established. Groups like the PFLP and DFLP emerged as independent organizations with revolutionary/internationalist outlooks in contrast to Fatah's more conservative nationalism. ^ ^ Rubenberg, Cheryl (2003). The Palestinians: In Search of a Just Peace . Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-58826-225-7 . ^ \"fasael – منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية\" . Palestine Liberation Organization (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 6 August 2024 . Retrieved 29 August 2024 . ^ \"Palestine\" . National Anthems . Archived from the original on 23 May 2020 . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . ^ Hilal, Jamil; Hammami, Rema (13 June 2001). \"An Uprising at a Crossroads\" . Middle East Report . Retrieved 26 July 2024 . the higher and more encompassing power of the PLO, as the representative of all Palestinians, not just Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, whom the institutions of the PA represent. ^ Al-Madfai, Madiha Rashid (1993). Jordan, the United States and the Middle East Peace Process, 1974–1991 . Cambridge Middle East Library, Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-521-41523-1 . On 28 October 1974, the seventh Arab summit conference held in Rabat designated the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people and reaffirmed their right to establish an independent state of urgency. ^ Geldenhuys, Deon (1990). Isolated states: a comparative analysis . Cambridge University Press. p. 155 . ISBN 978-0-521-40268-2 . The organisation has also been recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people by well over 100 states ... ^ Murphy, Kim (10 September 1993). \"Israel and PLO, in Historic Bid for Peace, Agree to Mutual Recognition\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 23 April 2010 . Retrieved 13 August 2024 . ^ Mustafa, Rami (29 October 2018). المجلس المركزي الفلسطيني يعلن تعليق الاعتراف بدولة إسرائيل [The Palestinian Central Council announces the suspension of recognition of the State of Israel]. El Watan . Archived from the original on 7 November 2018 . Retrieved 29 October 2018 . ^ \"Palestinian Central Council suspends recognition of Israel\" . www.aa.com.tr . Archived from the original on 2 November 2023 . Retrieved 2 November 2023 . ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3210. \"Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, to participate in the deliberations of the General Assembly on the question of Palestine in plenary meetings.\" ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3236. \"Having heard the statement of the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, ...\" ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3237. \"1. Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization to participate in the sessions and the work of the General Assembly in the capacity of observer; 2. Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization to participate in the sessions and the work of all international conferences convened under the auspices of the General Assembly in the capacity of observer; 3. Considers that the Palestine Liberation Organization is entitled to participate as an observer in the sessions and the work of all international conferences convened under the auspices of other organs of the United Nations;\" ^ Beyer, Lisa (12 November 2004). \"Arafat: A Life in Retrospect\" . Time . Archived from the original on 8 October 2022 . Retrieved 8 March 2017 . ^ \"PLO to Limit Attacks, Arafat Says\" . Los Angeles Times . 17 October 2000 . Retrieved 8 March 2017 . ^ \"Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 17 June 2015 . Retrieved 8 March 2017 . ^ 22 U.S.C. § 5201 : Findings; determinations ^ Ehrenfeld, Rachel (2003). \"The Palestinians\". Funding Evil, How Terrorism Is Financed – and How to Stop It (PDF) (preview chapter). Bonus Books. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2011 . Retrieved 27 October 2023 – via Funding for Peace Coalition.",
   "lead_after": "Official representative of Palestinians \"PLO\" redirects here. For other uses, see PLO (disambiguation) . Personal Early life Compound Death conspiracy theories Suha Arafat (wife) Palestine Liberation Organization Chairman (1969–2004) PLO in Lebanon Pre-presidency War of Attrition Battle of Karameh Black September Insurgency in South Lebanon First Intifada Operation Wooden Leg Lebanese Civil War Battle of the Hotels Aishiyeh massacres Chekka massacre 1978 South Lebanon conflict Battle of Zahleh 1982 Lebanon War Battle of Tripoli War of the Camps Battle of Sidon 1st President of Palestine Israeli–Palestinian conflict Oslo Accords 2000 Camp David Summit Second Intifada Elections 1996 v t e The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ; Arabic : منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية , romanized : Munaẓẓamat at-Taḥrīr al-Filasṭīniyyah ) is a Palestinian nationalist coalition that is internationally recognized as the official representative of the Palestinian people in the occupied Palestinian territories . It is currently represented by the Palestinian Authority based in the West Bank city of Al-Bireh . Founded in 1964, it initially sought to establish an Arab state over the entire territory of the former Mandatory Palestine , advocating the elimination of Israel . Mediated talks between the Israeli government and the PLO in 1993 (the Oslo I Accord) resulted in the PLO recognizing Israel's legitimacy and accepting United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 , which mandated Israel's withdrawal from occupied territories, while Israel recognized the PLO as a legitimate authority representing the Palestinian people. Despite the Israel–PLO Letters of Mutual Recognition (1993), in which PLO leader Yasser Arafat renounced violence against Israel, the PLO engaged in militant activities during the Second Intifada (2000–2005). On 29 October 2018, the PLO Central Council suspended the Palestinian recognition of Israel . As the officially recognized government of the State of Palestine , it has enjoyed United Nations observer status since 1974. Prior to the Oslo Accords , the PLO's militant wings engaged in acts of violence against both the Israeli military and civilians, within Israel and abroad. The United States designated it as a terrorist group in 1987, though a presidential waiver has permitted American–PLO contact since 1988. ^ \"Arabs Create Organization For Recovery of Palestine\" . The New York Times . Reuters. 29 May 1964. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023 . Retrieved 22 July 2018 . The creation of Palestine liberation organization was announced today... ^ Sawafta, Ali (30 November 2010). \"In West Bank, Ramallah looks ever more like capital\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 14 February 2023 . Retrieved 16 October 2017 . ^ Toameh, Khaled Abu (24 November 2010). \"Abbas: Referendum law is 'obstacle to peace' \" . Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 20 December 2016 . Retrieved 27 October 2023 . ^ Szekely, Ora (26 November 2016). The Politics of Militant Group Survival in the Middle East: Resources, Relationships, and Resistance . Springer. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-319-40141-6 . ^ Spyer, Jonathan (1 January 2011). The Transforming Fire: The Rise of the Israel-Islamist Conflict . A&C Black. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-4411-6663-0 . ^ \"Quién fue Yasser Arafat?\" . 17 March 2019. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ Grafton, David D. (16 March 2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East . Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7 . ^ Lieber, Dov (15 January 2018). \"Rewriting history, Abbas calls Israel a 'colonial project' unrelated to Judaism\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 26 June 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ \"Jailed PFLP Leader: Only a One-state Solution Is Possible\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 23 July 2022 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ \"Fatah spokesperson talks about the potential for a two-state solution in Palestine\" . NPR . 22 September 2025 . Retrieved 18 October 2025 . ^ Ora Szekely, ed. (2016). The Politics of Militant Group Survival in the Middle East: Resources, Relationships, and Resistance . Springer International Publishing. p. 54. To balance against their rivals, the Gulf states tended to back the comparatively conservative Fatah. ^ \"The Left Has Played a Key Role in the Palestinian Struggle\" . Jacobin . 2 July 2024 . Retrieved 18 October 2025 . Today's absence of a progressive option between two conservative nationalist parties, Fatah and Hamas, contributes to the impasse that Palestinians face in terms of political initiative. ^ Robert O Freedman, ed. (9 July 2019). The Middle East Since Camp David . Taylor & Francis . By 1969 (the year Arafat assumed chairmanship of the PLO/EC and Fatah moved to unite the PLO) the corporate identities of the various groups were already becoming established. Groups like the PFLP and DFLP emerged as independent organizations with revolutionary/internationalist outlooks in contrast to Fatah's more conservative nationalism. ^ ^ Rubenberg, Cheryl (2003). The Palestinians: In Search of a Just Peace . Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-58826-225-7 . ^ \"fasael – منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية\" . Palestine Liberation Organization (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 6 August 2024 . Retrieved 29 August 2024 . ^ \"Palestine\" . National Anthems . Archived from the original on 23 May 2020 . Retrieved 15 January 2017 . ^ Hilal, Jamil; Hammami, Rema (13 June 2001). \"An Uprising at a Crossroads\" . Middle East Report . Retrieved 26 July 2024 . the higher and more encompassing power of the PLO, as the representative of all Palestinians, not just Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, whom the institutions of the PA represent. ^ Al-Madfai, Madiha Rashid (1993). Jordan, the United States and the Middle East Peace Process, 1974–1991 . Cambridge Middle East Library, Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-521-41523-1 . On 28 October 1974, the seventh Arab summit conference held in Rabat designated the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people and reaffirmed their right to establish an independent state of urgency. ^ Geldenhuys, Deon (1990). Isolated states: a comparative analysis . Cambridge University Press. p. 155 . ISBN 978-0-521-40268-2 . The organisation has also been recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people by well over 100 states ... ^ Murphy, Kim (10 September 1993). \"Israel and PLO, in Historic Bid for Peace, Agree to Mutual Recognition\" . Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 23 April 2010 . Retrieved 13 August 2024 . ^ \"Arafat and the Second Intifada | Council on Foreign Relations\" . www.cfr.org . 4 January 2013 . Retrieved 4 July 2026 . ^ Mustafa, Rami (29 October 2018). المجلس المركزي الفلسطيني يعلن تعليق الاعتراف بدولة إسرائيل [The Palestinian Central Council announces the suspension of recognition of the State of Israel]. El Watan . Archived from the original on 7 November 2018 . Retrieved 29 October 2018 . ^ \"Palestinian Central Council suspends recognition of Israel\" . www.aa.com.tr . Archived from the original on 2 November 2023 . Retrieved 2 November 2023 . ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3210. \"Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, to participate in the deliberations of the General Assembly on the question of Palestine in plenary meetings.\" ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3236. \"Having heard the statement of the Palestine Liberation Organization, the representative of the Palestinian people, ...\" ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3237. \"1. Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization to participate in the sessions and the work of the General Assembly in the capacity of observer; 2. Invites the Palestine Liberation Organization to participate in the sessions and the work of all international conferences convened under the auspices of the General Assembly in the capacity of observer; 3. Considers that the Palestine Liberation Organization is entitled to participate as an observer in the sessions and the work of all international conferences convened under the auspices of other organs of the United Nations;\" ^ Beyer, Lisa (12 November 2004). \"Arafat: A Life in Retrospect\" . Time . Archived from the original on 8 October 2022 . Retrieved 8 March 2017 . ^ \"PLO to Limit Attacks, Arafat Says\" . Los Angeles Times . 17 October 2000 . Retrieved 8 March 2017 . ^ \"Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 17 June 2015 . Retrieved 8 March 2017 . ^ 22 U.S.C. § 5201 : Findings; determinations ^ Ehrenfeld, Rachel (2003). \"The Palestinians\". Funding Evil, How Terrorism Is Financed – and How to Stop It (PDF) (preview chapter). Bonus Books. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2011 . Retrieved 27 October 2023 – via Funding for Peace Coalition."
  },
  {
   "title": "Fatah",
   "pageid": 11104,
   "revid_before": 1361865683,
   "revid_after": 1365387509,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-22T02:29:14Z",
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   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fatah&oldid=1361865683",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fatah&oldid=1365387509",
   "lead_before": "Palestinian political party For other uses, see Fatah (disambiguation) . Fatah ( / ˈ f ɑː t ə , f ə ˈ t ɑː / FAH -tə, fə- TAH ; Arabic : فتح , romanized : Fatḥ [ˈfʌtɑħ] ), officially the Palestinian National Liberation Movement ( حركة التحرير الوطني الفلسطيني , Ḥarakat at-Taḥrīr al-Waṭanī l-Filasṭīnī ), is a Palestinian nationalist and social democratic political party. It is the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the second-largest party in the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC). Mahmoud Abbas , the president of the Palestinian Authority , is the chairman of Fatah. Fatah was historically involved in armed struggle against the state of Israel (as well as Jordan during the Black September conflict in 1970–1971) and maintained a number of militant groups , which carried out attacks against military targets as well as Israeli civilians, notably including the 1978 coastal road massacre , though the group disengaged from armed conflict against Israel around the time of the Oslo Accords (1993–1995), when it recognised Israel, which gave it limited control over the occupied Palestinian territories . During the Second Intifada (2000–2005), Fatah intensified armed conflict against Israel, claiming responsibility for a number of suicide attacks . Fatah had been closely identified with the leadership of its founder and chairman, Yasser Arafat , until his death in 2004, when Farouk Kaddoumi constitutionally succeeded him to the position of Fatah Chairman and continued in the position until 2009, when Abbas was elected chairman. Since Arafat's death, factionalism within the ideologically diverse movement has become more apparent. In the 2006 election for the PLC , the party lost its majority in the PLC to Hamas . The Hamas legislative victory led to a conflict between Fatah and Hamas , with Fatah retaining control of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank through its president. Fatah is also active in the control of Palestinian refugee camps . ^ \"مفوضية التعبئة والتنظيم - فصائل منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية\" . Fatehorg.ps. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016 . Retrieved 25 April 2013 . ^ \"Jailed Fatah leader Barghouti: Gaza war was victory for Palestinians\" . The Jerusalem Post - JPost.com . 18 September 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2015 . ^ Wienthal, Benjamin. \"German Jews slam party for working with Fatah\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 2 May 2016 . [Sigmar Gabriel] added that Fatah was part of the values of social democracy and was represented in the European coalition of social democrats as an observer partner. ^ \"Only 6% of Gazans now want Hamas to continue operations after war with Israel ends: Poll\" . Firstpost . 3 March 2025 . Retrieved 26 July 2025 . Following the ceasefire, support for Fatah, a Palestinian nationalist and social democratic political party, rose by 12 percentage points, as per the poll ^ ^ Ulrika Möller, Isabell Schierenbeck, ed. (2014). Political Leadership, Nascent Statehood and Democracy: A comparative study . Routledge . p. 139. ISBN 9781317673101 . Hamas' rejection of secularism and implicit contempt of 'territorial' nationalism challenged the Palestinian narrative as defined by Fatah and PLO [...] Thus, Arafat kept the secular, albeit expressed rhetorically with Islamic (and occasionally Christian) connotations, vision of the state project. ^ Yonah Alexander, ed. (2021). Palestinian Secular Terrorism: Profiles of Fatah, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command, and Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine . BRILL. ^ ^ Committee, United States Congress House Internal Security (1974). Terrorism, a Staff Study Prepared by ..., August 1, 1974 . p. 34. Al Fatah is a nationalist, pan-Arab movement... ^ Ora Szekely, ed. (2016). The Politics of Militant Group Survival in the Middle East: Resources, Relationships, and Resistance . Springer International Publishing. p. 54. To balance against their rivals, the Gulf states tended to back the comparatively conservative Fatah. ^ \"The Left Has Played a Key Role in the Palestinian Struggle\" . Jacobin . 2 July 2024 . Retrieved 18 October 2025 . Today's absence of a progressive option between two conservative nationalist parties, Fatah and Hamas, contributes to the impasse that Palestinians face in terms of political initiative. ^ Høigilt, Jacob (7 December 2015). \"Fatah from Below: The Clash of Generations in Palestine\" . British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies . 43 (4). Taylor & Francis Online: 456– 471. doi : 10.1080/13530194.2015.1116375 . ^ Robert O Freedman, ed. (9 July 2019). The Middle East Since Camp David . Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-000-30348-3 . By 1969 (the year Arafat assumed chairmanship of the PLO/EC and Fatah moved to unite the PLO) the corporate identities of the various groups were already becoming established. Groups like the PFLP and DFLP emerged as independent organizations with revolutionary/internationalist outlooks in contrast to Fatah's more conservative nationalism. ^ ^ Lieber, Dov (15 January 2018). \"Rewriting history, Abbas calls Israel a 'colonial project' unrelated to Judaism\" . The Times of Israel . ^ Ely Karmon, ed. (June 2005). Coalitions Between Terrorist Organizations: Revolutionaries, Nationalists and Islamists . Brill . p. 291. ISBN 9789047407386 . Fatah's affiliation with the anti-imperialist Third World movement was far more concrete and enduring than ETA's brief flirtation with the idea of tercermundismo . ^ ^ \"Fatah spokesperson talks about the potential for a two-state solution in Palestine\" . NPR . 22 September 2025 . Retrieved 18 October 2025 . ^ \"Quién fue Yasser Arafat?\" . 17 March 2019. ^ Colin P. Clarke, ed. (2018). Terrorism . Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 979-8-216-15458-7 . The PLO is comprised of centrist-nationalist groups (such as al-Fatah), rightist groups, leftist groups (including communists), militant groups, and nonmilitant groups. ^ Christina, Rachel (2006). Tend the Olive, Water the Vine: Globalization and the Negotiation of Early Childhood in Palestine . IAP-Information. p. xxi. ISBN 9781607525592 . A Palestinian organization, affiliated with the centrist Fatah movement, which filtered funds from the Palestinian diaspora back into social services in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. ^ Marshall Breger; Yitzhak Reiter; Leonard Hammer, eds. (2013). Sacred Space in Israel and Palestine: Religion and Politics . Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781136490330 . Even Fatah (the centrist party of the Palestine Liberation Organization led by Yasser Arafat), which had supported Hamas's Gazan campaign against the Communist Party and the Popular and Democratic Fronts, suffered the onslaughts of the movement just prior to the outbreak of the Intifada. ^ Halabi, Yakub (2016). Democratic Peace Across the Middle East: Islam and Political Modernisation . London: I.B. Tauris . ISBN 9780857728821 . The failure of the Palestinian left in consolidating a counterweight to the right-wing Islamic Hamas or to the centrist Fatah, furthermore, left Palestinian voters with no viable alternative to Hamas or Fatah. ^ Avi Tuschman, ed. (3 September 2013). Our Political Nature: The Evolutionary Origins of What Divides Us . Prometheus Books . p. 53. ISBN 9781616148249 . On the Muslim Palestinian side, respondents with the lowest scores sup- ported left-wing parties; intermediate scorers supported the centrist Fatah party; and those who scored highest supported Hamas and Islamic Jihad (which have \"destroy Israel\" ideologies). ^ ^ Youssef H., Aboul-Enein, ed. (2011). Militant Islamist Ideology: Understanding the Global Threat . Naval Institute Press. p. 230. ISBN 9781317755098 . Fatah is a major Palestinian political party and the largest faction of the Palestine liberation Organization (PLO), a multiparty confederation. In Palestinian politics, it is on the center-left of the spectrum. ^ Jeffrey Ian Ross, ed. (4 March 2015). Religion and Violence: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict from Antiquity to the Present . Taylor & Francis . ISBN 9781317461081 . The Brigades originated from Fatah (Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini, or Movement of Liberation of the Nation of the Palestinians), a secular nationalist party of center-left and the oldest and largest organization of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). ^ Muqtedar Khan (12 November 2004). \"Yasser Arafat's Unfinished Saga\" . Brookings Institution . Retrieved 26 July 2025 . The emergence of the Islamic movement as an alternative to his more or less center-left secular Fatah movement has divided the Palestinian people and their aspirations. ^ ^ \"Palestinian govt platform drops \"armed resistance\" \" . Reuters . 9 August 2007. ^ \"New Fatah militia to counter Hamas\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 10 June 2024 . ^ \"Palestinian tensions mount as Fatah deploys new militia force\" . The Independent . 3 June 2006 . Retrieved 10 June 2024 . ^ \"Al-Zaytouna Centre\" . Alzaytouna.net. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011 . Retrieved 25 April 2013 . ^ Terrorism in Tel Aviv Time Friday, 13 Sep 1968 ^ \"Palestinian Leader of Hezbollah-linked Ansar Allah leaves Lebanon to Syria\" . 7 November 2018. ^ \"Lebanese army deployed to Palestinian camp after Fatah-Ansar Allah clash\" . 26 October 2018.",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian political party For other uses, see Fatah (disambiguation) . Fatah ( / ˈ f ɑː t ə , f ə ˈ t ɑː / FAH -tə, fə- TAH ; Arabic : فتح , romanized : Fatḥ [ˈfʌtɑħ] ), officially the Palestinian National Liberation Movement ( حركة التحرير الوطني الفلسطيني , Ḥarakat at-Taḥrīr al-Waṭanī l-Filasṭīnī ), is a Palestinian nationalist and social democratic political party. It is the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the second-largest party in the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC). Mahmoud Abbas , the president of the Palestinian Authority , is the chairman of Fatah. Fatah was historically involved in armed struggle against the state of Israel (as well as Jordan during the Black September conflict in 1970–1971) and maintained a number of militant groups , which carried out attacks against military targets as well as Israeli civilians, notably including the 1978 coastal road massacre , though the group disengaged from armed conflict against Israel around the time of the Oslo Accords (1993–1995), when it recognised Israel, which gave it limited control over the occupied Palestinian territories . During the Second Intifada (2000–2005), Fatah intensified armed conflict against Israel, claiming responsibility for a number of suicide attacks . Fatah had been closely identified with the leadership of its founder and chairman, Yasser Arafat , until his death in 2004, when Farouk Kaddoumi constitutionally succeeded him to the position of Fatah Chairman and continued in the position until 2009, when Abbas was elected chairman. Since Arafat's death, factionalism within the ideologically diverse movement has become more apparent. In the 2006 election for the PLC , the party lost its majority in the PLC to Hamas . The Hamas legislative victory led to a conflict between Fatah and Hamas , with Fatah retaining control of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank through its president. Fatah is also active in the control of Palestinian refugee camps . ^ \"مفوضية التعبئة والتنظيم - فصائل منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية\" . Fatehorg.ps. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016 . Retrieved 25 April 2013 . ^ \"Jailed Fatah leader Barghouti: Gaza war was victory for Palestinians\" . The Jerusalem Post - JPost.com . 18 September 2014 . Retrieved 3 July 2015 . ^ Wienthal, Benjamin. \"German Jews slam party for working with Fatah\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 2 May 2016 . [Sigmar Gabriel] added that Fatah was part of the values of social democracy and was represented in the European coalition of social democrats as an observer partner. ^ \"Only 6% of Gazans now want Hamas to continue operations after war with Israel ends: Poll\" . Firstpost . 3 March 2025 . Retrieved 26 July 2025 . Following the ceasefire, support for Fatah, a Palestinian nationalist and social democratic political party, rose by 12 percentage points, as per the poll ^ ^ Ulrika Möller, Isabell Schierenbeck, ed. (2014). Political Leadership, Nascent Statehood and Democracy: A comparative study . Routledge . p. 139. ISBN 9781317673101 . Hamas' rejection of secularism and implicit contempt of 'territorial' nationalism challenged the Palestinian narrative as defined by Fatah and PLO [...] Thus, Arafat kept the secular, albeit expressed rhetorically with Islamic (and occasionally Christian) connotations, vision of the state project. ^ Yonah Alexander, ed. (2021). Palestinian Secular Terrorism: Profiles of Fatah, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command, and Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine . BRILL. ^ ^ Committee, United States Congress House Internal Security (1974). Terrorism, a Staff Study Prepared by ..., August 1, 1974 . p. 34. Al Fatah is a nationalist, pan-Arab movement... ^ Ora Szekely, ed. (2016). The Politics of Militant Group Survival in the Middle East: Resources, Relationships, and Resistance . Springer International Publishing. p. 54. To balance against their rivals, the Gulf states tended to back the comparatively conservative Fatah. ^ \"The Left Has Played a Key Role in the Palestinian Struggle\" . Jacobin . 2 July 2024 . Retrieved 18 October 2025 . Today's absence of a progressive option between two conservative nationalist parties, Fatah and Hamas, contributes to the impasse that Palestinians face in terms of political initiative. ^ Høigilt, Jacob (7 December 2015). \"Fatah from Below: The Clash of Generations in Palestine\" . British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies . 43 (4). Taylor & Francis Online: 456– 471. doi : 10.1080/13530194.2015.1116375 . ^ Robert O Freedman, ed. (9 July 2019). The Middle East Since Camp David . Taylor & Francis . ISBN 978-1-000-30348-3 . By 1969 (the year Arafat assumed chairmanship of the PLO/EC and Fatah moved to unite the PLO) the corporate identities of the various groups were already becoming established. Groups like the PFLP and DFLP emerged as independent organizations with revolutionary/internationalist outlooks in contrast to Fatah's more conservative nationalism. ^ ^ Lieber, Dov (15 January 2018). \"Rewriting history, Abbas calls Israel a 'colonial project' unrelated to Judaism\" . The Times of Israel . ^ Ely Karmon, ed. (June 2005). Coalitions Between Terrorist Organizations: Revolutionaries, Nationalists and Islamists . Brill . p. 291. ISBN 9789047407386 . Fatah's affiliation with the anti-imperialist Third World movement was far more concrete and enduring than ETA's brief flirtation with the idea of tercermundismo . ^ ^ \"Fatah spokesperson talks about the potential for a two-state solution in Palestine\" . NPR . 22 September 2025 . Retrieved 18 October 2025 . ^ \"Quién fue Yasser Arafat?\" . 17 March 2019. ^ Colin P. Clarke, ed. (2018). Terrorism . Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 979-8-216-15458-7 . The PLO is comprised of centrist-nationalist groups (such as al-Fatah), rightist groups, leftist groups (including communists), militant groups, and nonmilitant groups. ^ Christina, Rachel (2006). Tend the Olive, Water the Vine: Globalization and the Negotiation of Early Childhood in Palestine . IAP-Information. p. xxi. ISBN 9781607525592 . A Palestinian organization, affiliated with the centrist Fatah movement, which filtered funds from the Palestinian diaspora back into social services in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. ^ Marshall Breger; Yitzhak Reiter; Leonard Hammer, eds. (2013). Sacred Space in Israel and Palestine: Religion and Politics . Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781136490330 . Even Fatah (the centrist party of the Palestine Liberation Organization led by Yasser Arafat), which had supported Hamas's Gazan campaign against the Communist Party and the Popular and Democratic Fronts, suffered the onslaughts of the movement just prior to the outbreak of the Intifada. ^ Halabi, Yakub (2016). Democratic Peace Across the Middle East: Islam and Political Modernisation . London: I.B. Tauris . ISBN 9780857728821 . The failure of the Palestinian left in consolidating a counterweight to the right-wing Islamic Hamas or to the centrist Fatah, furthermore, left Palestinian voters with no viable alternative to Hamas or Fatah. ^ Avi Tuschman, ed. (3 September 2013). Our Political Nature: The Evolutionary Origins of What Divides Us . Prometheus Books . p. 53. ISBN 9781616148249 . On the Muslim Palestinian side, respondents with the lowest scores sup- ported left-wing parties; intermediate scorers supported the centrist Fatah party; and those who scored highest supported Hamas and Islamic Jihad (which have \"destroy Israel\" ideologies). ^ ^ Youssef H., Aboul-Enein, ed. (2011). Militant Islamist Ideology: Understanding the Global Threat . Naval Institute Press. p. 230. ISBN 9781317755098 . Fatah is a major Palestinian political party and the largest faction of the Palestine liberation Organization (PLO), a multiparty confederation. In Palestinian politics, it is on the center-left of the spectrum. ^ Jeffrey Ian Ross, ed. (4 March 2015). Religion and Violence: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict from Antiquity to the Present . Taylor & Francis . ISBN 9781317461081 . The Brigades originated from Fatah (Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini, or Movement of Liberation of the Nation of the Palestinians), a secular nationalist party of center-left and the oldest and largest organization of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). ^ Muqtedar Khan (12 November 2004). \"Yasser Arafat's Unfinished Saga\" . Brookings Institution . Retrieved 26 July 2025 . The emergence of the Islamic movement as an alternative to his more or less center-left secular Fatah movement has divided the Palestinian people and their aspirations. ^ ^ \"Palestinian govt platform drops \"armed resistance\" \" . Reuters . 9 August 2007. ^ \"New Fatah militia to counter Hamas\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 10 June 2024 . ^ \"Palestinian tensions mount as Fatah deploys new militia force\" . The Independent . 3 June 2006 . Retrieved 10 June 2024 . ^ \"Al-Zaytouna Centre\" . Alzaytouna.net. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011 . Retrieved 25 April 2013 . ^ Terrorism in Tel Aviv Time Friday, 13 Sep 1968 ^ \"Palestinian Leader of Hezbollah-linked Ansar Allah leaves Lebanon to Syria\" . 7 November 2018. ^ \"Lebanese army deployed to Palestinian camp after Fatah-Ansar Allah clash\" . 26 October 2018."
  },
  {
   "title": "Hassan Nasrallah",
   "pageid": 313436,
   "revid_before": 1359515473,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-19T13:30:12Z",
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   "lead_before": "Secretary-General of Hezbollah from 1992 to 2024 For other people named Hassan Nasrallah, see Hassan Nasrallah (disambiguation) . Organizations Hezbollah social services Hezbollah in Latin America Finance Bayt al-Mal Yousser Company Al-Qard Al-Hasan Association IRSO Media Al-Manar Al-Nour Al-Ahed Lebanese Communication Group Miscellaneous Jihad al-Bina People Secretaries-General Subhi al-Tufayli Abbas al-Musawi X Hassan Nasrallah X Naim Qassem Senior officials Imad Mughniyeh X Mustafa Badreddine X Hashem Safieddine X Fuad Shukr X Ibrahim Aqil X Ali Karaki X Talal Hamiyah Wafiq Safa Ibrahim Amin al-Sayyed Khalil Yusif Harb Muhammad Haydar Ali Damoush Hussein al-Khalil Haytham Ali Tabatabai X Ali Musa Daqduq X Nabil Qaouk X Salim Ayyash X Mohamad Issa X Jihad Mughniyah X Wissam al-Tawil X Muhammad Jafar Qasir X Mohammad Afif X Abdallah Safi-Al-Din Abdel Karim Obeid Mohammad Yazbek Husayn al-Shami Fouad Saleh Amer Mohamed Akil Rada Ali Akbar Mohtashamipour # Politicians / Generals Mohammad Raad Ali Hussein Nassif † Ali Ammar Ali Fayyad Ali Hamieh Ali Mekdad Amin Sherri Elwalid Succariyeh Fadi Akiki Ghazi Nasr Al-Din Hamad Hasan Hassan Fadlallah Hussein Hajj Hassan Hussein Moussawi Imad Hoballah Muhammad Fneish Nawwaf Moussawi Nawar al-Sahili Trad Hamadeh Related topics Disarmament of Hezbollah Funding of the Axis of Resistance Hezbollah Captagon smuggling to Saudi Arabia The Hawk of Lebanon Tourist Landmark of the Resistance 2024 Lebanon electronic device attacks Funeral of Hassan Nasrallah RSII/4+1 coalition Ghazali assassination [ fa ] Temple Israel synagogue attack Attempts against Hezbollah Operation Smokescreen Project Cassandra Project Cedar (DEA) Project Titan (DEA) v t e Hassan Nasrallah (31 August 1960 – 27 September 2024) was a Lebanese Shia cleric , a militant, and politician who served as the third secretary-general of Hezbollah , a Shia Islamist political party and militia, from 1992 until his assassination in 2024. Born into a Shia family in the suburbs of Beirut in 1960, Nasrallah finished his education in Tyre , when he briefly joined the Amal Movement , and afterward at a Shia seminary in Baalbek . He later studied and taught at an Amal school. In 1982, Nasrallah served as a founding member of Hezbollah , which was formed to fight the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon , declaring that its confrontation with Israel \"should only end when it has been removed from existence\". After a brief period of religious studies in Iran , Nasrallah returned to Lebanon and became Hezbollah's leader after his predecessor, Abbas al-Musawi , was assassinated by an Israeli airstrike in 1992. Under Nasrallah's leadership, Hezbollah acquired rockets with a longer range, which allowed them to strike at northern Israel. Israel withdrew its forces in 2000 after the 18-year occupation of southern Lebanon , a decision widely considered in Lebanon to have been due to Hezbollah's attacks. The date of Israeli withdrawal is celebrated as a public holiday in Lebanon. Hezbollah cultivated Nasrallah's media image as a charismatic authority, though this image was later weakened. Hezbollah's role in ambushing an Israeli border patrol unit, leading up to the 2006 Lebanon War , was subject to criticism, though Nasrallah projected the end of the war as a Lebanese and Arab victory. During the Syrian civil war , Hezbollah fought on the side of the Bashar al-Assad 's government against what Nasrallah termed \" Islamist extremists\" and \" takfiris \". However, several figures and organizations asserted that Nasrallah was responsible for massacres of Sunni Muslims . Nasrallah also promoted the \" Axis of Resistance \", an informal coalition of Iran-backed groups focused on opposing Israel and the United States . After the Hamas -led October 7 attacks on Israel followed by war , Hezbollah engaged in ongoing conflict that impacted both sides of the Israeli–Lebanese border, which it said was in solidarity with Palestinians. On 27 September 2024, Nasrallah was killed when the Israeli air force attacked Hezbollah's headquarters . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (27 September 2024). \"Who Is Hassan Nasrallah, Leader of Hezbollah?\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 17 March 2026 . ^ \"What is Hezbollah and why is Israel attacking Lebanon?\" . BBC News . 14 February 2025 . Retrieved 23 February 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Al Jazeera 2000 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hezbollah\" . Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 28 March 2016 . Retrieved 19 March 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Matar 2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Nasrallah says he did not want war\" . Al Jazeera. News Agencies. 27 August 2006 . Retrieved 12 February 2026 . The leader of Hezbollah has said that he would not have ordered the capture of two Israeli soldiers had he known that it would trigger such a war. ^ Norton, Augustus R. (2018). Hezbollah: a short history . Princeton studies in Muslim politics (3rd ed.). Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-691-18088-5 . ^ \"Hezbollah leader Nasrallah vows to keep fighters in Syria\" . BBC News . 17 February 2014 . Retrieved 17 March 2026 . ^ \"Hassan Nasrallah's death will reshape Lebanon and the Middle East\" . The Economist . 28 September 2024. ISSN 0013-0613 . ^ Goldenberg, Tia; Shurafa, Wafaa (8 October 2023). \"Hezbollah and Israel exchange fire as Israeli soldiers battle Hamas on second day of surprise attack\" . Associated Press News . Archived from the original on 8 October 2023 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ \"Israel says it struck Hezbollah's headquarters in huge explosion that shakes Lebanese capital\" . AP News . 27 September 2024 . Retrieved 27 September 2024 .",
   "lead_after": "Secretary-General of Hezbollah from 1992 to 2024 For other people named Hassan Nasrallah, see Hassan Nasrallah (disambiguation) . Organizations Hezbollah social services Hezbollah in Latin America Finance Bayt al-Mal Yousser Company Al-Qard Al-Hasan Association IRSO Media Al-Manar Al-Nour Al-Ahed Lebanese Communication Group Miscellaneous Jihad al-Bina People Secretaries-General Subhi al-Tufayli Abbas al-Musawi X Hassan Nasrallah X Naim Qassem Senior officials Imad Mughniyeh X Mustafa Badreddine X Hashem Safieddine X Fuad Shukr X Ibrahim Aqil X Ali Karaki X Talal Hamiyah Wafiq Safa Ibrahim Amin al-Sayyed Khalil Yusif Harb Muhammad Haydar Ali Damoush Hussein al-Khalil Haytham Ali Tabatabai X Ali Musa Daqduq X Nabil Qaouk X Salim Ayyash X Mohamad Issa X Jihad Mughniyah X Wissam al-Tawil X Muhammad Jafar Qasir X Mohammad Afif X Abdallah Safi-Al-Din Abdel Karim Obeid Mohammad Yazbek Husayn al-Shami Fouad Saleh Amer Mohamed Akil Rada Ali Akbar Mohtashamipour # Politicians / Generals Mohammad Raad Ali Hussein Nassif † Ali Ammar Ali Fayyad Ali Hamieh Ali Mekdad Amin Sherri Elwalid Succariyeh Fadi Akiki Ghazi Nasr Al-Din Hamad Hasan Hassan Fadlallah Hussein Hajj Hassan Hussein Moussawi Imad Hoballah Muhammad Fneish Nawwaf Moussawi Nawar al-Sahili Trad Hamadeh Related topics Disarmament of Hezbollah Funding of the Axis of Resistance Hezbollah Captagon smuggling to Saudi Arabia The Hawk of Lebanon Tourist Landmark of the Resistance 2024 Lebanon electronic device attacks Funeral of Hassan Nasrallah RSII/4+1 coalition Ghazali assassination [ fa ] Temple Israel synagogue attack Attempts against Hezbollah Operation Smokescreen Project Cassandra Project Cedar (DEA) Project Titan (DEA) v t e Hassan Nasrallah (31 August 1960 – 27 September 2024) was a Lebanese Shia cleric , a militant, and politician who served as the third secretary-general of Hezbollah , a Shia Islamist political party and militia, from 1992 until his assassination in 2024. Born into a Shia family in the suburbs of Beirut in 1960, Nasrallah finished his education in Tyre , when he briefly joined the Amal Movement , and afterward at a Shia seminary in Baalbek . He later studied and taught at an Amal school. In 1982, Nasrallah served as a founding member of Hezbollah , which was formed to fight the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon , declaring that its confrontation with Israel \"should only end when it has been removed from existence\". After a brief period of religious studies in Iran , Nasrallah returned to Lebanon and became Hezbollah's leader after his predecessor, Abbas al-Musawi , was assassinated by an Israeli airstrike in 1992. Under Nasrallah's leadership, Hezbollah acquired rockets with a longer range, which allowed them to strike at northern Israel. Israel withdrew its forces in 2000 after the 18-year occupation of southern Lebanon , a decision widely considered in Lebanon to have been due to Hezbollah's attacks. The date of Israeli withdrawal is celebrated as a public holiday in Lebanon. Hezbollah cultivated Nasrallah's media image as a charismatic authority, though this image was later weakened. Hezbollah's role in ambushing an Israeli border patrol unit, leading up to the 2006 Lebanon War , was subject to criticism, though Nasrallah projected the end of the war as a Lebanese and Arab victory. During the Syrian civil war , Hezbollah fought on the side of the Bashar al-Assad 's government against what Nasrallah termed \" Islamist extremists\" and \" takfiris \". However, several figures and organizations asserted that Nasrallah was responsible for massacres of Sunni Muslims . Nasrallah also promoted the \" Axis of Resistance \", an informal coalition of Iran-backed groups focused on opposing Israel and the United States . After the Hamas -led October 7 attacks on Israel followed by war , Hezbollah engaged in ongoing conflict that impacted both sides of the Israeli–Lebanese border, which it said was in solidarity with Palestinians. On 27 September 2024, Nasrallah was killed when the Israeli air force attacked Hezbollah's headquarters . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (27 September 2024). \"Who Is Hassan Nasrallah, Leader of Hezbollah?\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 17 March 2026 . ^ \"What is Hezbollah and why is Israel attacking Lebanon?\" . BBC News . 14 February 2025 . Retrieved 23 February 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Al Jazeera 2000 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hezbollah\" . Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 28 March 2016 . Retrieved 19 March 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Matar 2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Nasrallah says he did not want war\" . Al Jazeera. News Agencies. 27 August 2006 . Retrieved 12 February 2026 . The leader of Hezbollah has said that he would not have ordered the capture of two Israeli soldiers had he known that it would trigger such a war. ^ Norton, Augustus R. (2018). Hezbollah: a short history . Princeton studies in Muslim politics (3rd ed.). Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-691-18088-5 . ^ \"Hezbollah leader Nasrallah vows to keep fighters in Syria\" . BBC News . 17 February 2014 . Retrieved 17 March 2026 . ^ \"Hassan Nasrallah's death will reshape Lebanon and the Middle East\" . The Economist . 28 September 2024. ISSN 0013-0613 . ^ Goldenberg, Tia; Shurafa, Wafaa (8 October 2023). \"Hezbollah and Israel exchange fire as Israeli soldiers battle Hamas on second day of surprise attack\" . Associated Press News . Archived from the original on 8 October 2023 . Retrieved 25 August 2024 . ^ \"Israel says it struck Hezbollah's headquarters in huge explosion that shakes Lebanese capital\" . AP News . 27 September 2024 . Retrieved 27 September 2024 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Ahmed Yassin",
   "pageid": 80830,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-28T16:22:46Z",
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahmed_Yassin&oldid=1366540077",
   "lead_before": "Palestinian political and religious leader (1936–2004) For other people named Ahmed Yassin, see Ahmed Yassin (disambiguation) . Sheikh Ahmed Ismail Hassan Yassin ( Arabic : الشيخ أحمد إسماعيل حسن ياسين ; June 1936/37 – 22 March 2004) was a Palestinian politician and imam who founded Hamas , an Islamist political and military organization. He also served as the first chairman of the Hamas Shura Council and de facto leader of Hamas since its inception from December 1987 until his assassination in March 2004. Yassin was born in Ashkelon , in Mandatory Palestine in 1929 or 1936/1937. His family fled or were expelled during the 1948 Palestine War to Gaza City . Yassin, a quadriplegic who was nearly blind , had been reliant on a wheelchair due to a sporting accident at the age of 16. After its founding in 1987, Yassin served as the spiritual leader of Hamas . The Israeli government held him responsible for the killing of several Israeli civilians. In 2004, he was killed when an Israeli helicopter gunship fired a missile at him as he was being wheeled from Fajr prayer in Gaza City . The attack, which also killed both of his bodyguards and nine bystanders, was internationally condemned. His funeral procession was attended by 200,000 people in Gaza. ^ \"Some people are going to miss Ahmed Yassin\" . Haaretz.com . Retrieved 27 June 2026 . ^ Kabahā 2014 , pp. 323. ^ \"Sheikh Ahmad Yassin\" . Jewish Virtual Library . 2004. Archived from the original on 29 May 2022 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . Ahmed Yassin's Palestinian passport listed his date of birth as 1 January 1929, but Palestinian sources listed his birth year as 1937 (other Western media reported it as 1938). ^ Uschan, Michael V. (January 2006). Suicide Bombings in Israel and Palestinian Terrorism . Gareth Stevens Publishing LLLP. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8368-6561-5 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Charny, Israel W. (2007). Fighting suicide bombing: A Worldwide Campaign for Life . London, England: Bloomsbury . ISBN 978-0-275-99336-8 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 11 June 2010 . ^ Berko, Anat (2007). \"Sheikh Ahmad Yassin, Hamas founder: \"The shaheed doesn't die, he lives with Allah\" \". The path to paradise: the inner world of suicide bombers and their dispatchers . Abc-Clio, LLC. ISBN 978-0-275-99446-4 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Costigan, Sean S.; Gold, David (26 April 2007). Terrornomics . Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing . ISBN 978-0-7546-4995-3 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 11 June 2010 . ^ Brookes, Peter (March 2007). A Devil's Triangle: Terrorism, Weapons of Mass Destruction, and Rogue States . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . p. 21. ISBN 978-0-7425-4953-1 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The life and death of Shaikh Yasin\" . Al Jazeera . 24 March 2004. Archived from the original on 16 August 2007 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Prusher, Ilene R. (23 March 2004). \"Killing of Yassin a Turning Point\" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on 20 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 .",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian political and religious leader (1936–2004) For other people named Ahmed Yassin, see Ahmed Yassin (disambiguation) . Sheikh Ahmed Ismail Hassan Yassin ( Arabic : الشيخ أحمد إسماعيل حسن ياسين ; June 1936/37 – 22 March 2004) was a Palestinian politician and imam who founded Hamas , an Islamist political and military organization. He also served as the first chairman of the Hamas Shura Council and de facto leader of Hamas since its inception from December 1987 until his assassination in March 2004. Yassin was born in Ashkelon , in Mandatory Palestine in 1929 or 1936/1937. His family fled or were expelled during the 1948 Palestine War to Gaza City . Yassin, a quadriplegic who was nearly blind , had been reliant on a wheelchair due to a sporting accident at the age of 16. After its founding in 1987, Yassin served as the spiritual leader of Hamas . The Israeli government held him responsible for the killing of several Israeli civilians. In 2004, he was killed when an Israeli helicopter gunship fired a missile at him as he was being wheeled from Fajr prayer in Gaza City . The attack, which also killed both of his bodyguards and nine bystanders, was internationally condemned. His funeral procession was attended by 200,000 people in Gaza. ^ \"Some people are going to miss Ahmed Yassin\" . Haaretz.com . Retrieved 27 June 2026 . ^ Kabahā 2014 , pp. 323. ^ \"Sheikh Ahmad Yassin\" . Jewish Virtual Library . 2004. Archived from the original on 29 May 2022 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . Ahmed Yassin's Palestinian passport listed his date of birth as 1 January 1929, but Palestinian sources listed his birth year as 1937 (other Western media reported it as 1938). ^ Uschan, Michael V. (January 2006). Suicide Bombings in Israel and Palestinian Terrorism . Gareth Stevens Publishing LLLP. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8368-6561-5 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Charny, Israel W. (2007). Fighting suicide bombing: A Worldwide Campaign for Life . London, England: Bloomsbury . ISBN 978-0-275-99336-8 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 11 June 2010 . ^ Berko, Anat (2007). \"Sheikh Ahmad Yassin, Hamas founder: \"The shaheed doesn't die, he lives with Allah\" \". The path to paradise: the inner world of suicide bombers and their dispatchers . Abc-Clio, LLC. ISBN 978-0-275-99446-4 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Costigan, Sean S.; Gold, David (26 April 2007). Terrornomics . Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing . ISBN 978-0-7546-4995-3 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 11 June 2010 . ^ Brookes, Peter (March 2007). A Devil's Triangle: Terrorism, Weapons of Mass Destruction, and Rogue States . Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield . p. 21. ISBN 978-0-7425-4953-1 . Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The life and death of Shaikh Yasin\" . Al Jazeera . 24 March 2004. Archived from the original on 16 August 2007 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ Prusher, Ilene R. (23 March 2004). \"Killing of Yassin a Turning Point\" . The Christian Science Monitor . Archived from the original on 20 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Casualties of the Gaza war",
   "pageid": 75130785,
   "revid_before": 1360873441,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-24T00:59:34Z",
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   "lead_before": "Part of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict As of 3 May 2026 , at least 75,811 people (73,770+ Palestinians and 2,039+ Israelis) have been reported killed in the Gaza war according to the Gaza Health Ministry (GHM) and Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, including 270 journalists and media workers , 120 academics, and over 560 humanitarian aid workers, a number that includes 391 employees of UNRWA . A study by OHCHR found that 70% of the Palestinians killed in residential buildings or similar housing were women and children . In January 2025, an analysis of deaths between October 2023 and 30 June 2024 estimated 64,260 deaths from traumatic injury during this period, and likely exceeding 70,000 by October 2024, with 59.1% of them being women, children and the elderly. It concluded that the GHM undercounted trauma-related deaths by 41% in its report, and also noted that its findings \"do not account for non-trauma-related deaths.\" A comparable estimate up to May 2025 would be 93,000 (77,000 to 109,000), representing 4–5% of Gaza's pre-war population. Another casualty analysis, published in February 2026, estimated 75,200 violent deaths and 8,540 excess non-violent deaths between 7 October 2023 and 5 January 2025. The estimate of violent deaths is 34.7% higher than the GHM's casualty count at the time. Of the violent deaths, the researchers estimate that 56.2% were women, children, and elderly individuals. A May 2025 investigation found that a classified IDF database listed 8,900 Palestinian fighters as dead or likely dead, or 17% of the 53,000 death toll at the time, which if correct would indicate that 83% of the dead were civilians—among conflicts since 1989, only the Srebrenica massacre (though not the Bosnian war overall), the siege of Mariupol , and the Rwandan genocide have seen a higher rate of civilian casualties. In response, the IDF said that the numbers in the article are incorrect. A survey by the Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research (PCPSR) reported showed over 60% of Gazans have lost family members since the war began. Thousands of more dead bodies are thought to be under the rubble of destroyed buildings. The number of injured is greater than 100,000; United Nations agencies have reported that Gaza is now home to the highest number of child amputees per capita in the world. The majority of casualties have been in the Gaza Strip . The GHM total casualty count does not distinguish Palestinian deaths by Israeli attacks from those by other means, like friendly fire, and describes all casualties as victims of \"Israeli aggression\". On 3 March 2026, the GHM published the names, gender and birth date of 72,004 individual Palestinians whose identities were confirmed and continues to attempt to identify all casualties. The October 7 attacks on Israel killed 1,195 people, including 815 civilians. Casualties have also occurred in other parts of Israel, as well as in southern Lebanon , Syria , Yemen , and Iran . As reported by the Defense Ministry, the total number of Israeli fatalities as of October 2025 is 1,152. This figure encompasses soldiers, police personnel, Shin Bet operatives, and civilian security officials who died on duty, as well as those who succumbed to accidents, illness, or suicide. Notably, around 42% of the deceased were individuals under the age of 21. According to the Israeli Ministry of Defense's Rehabilitation Division, about 1,000 soldiers are wounded every month. In August 2024, the ministry predicted that it would have to account for 100,000 disabled IDF veterans by 2030 due to the war. An August 2025 report indicated that the rise in suicides among IDF soldiers was due to psychological trauma resulting from the prolonged conflict. ^ \"October 7 Crimes Against Humanity, War Crimes by Hamas-led Groups\" . Human Rights Watch . 17 July 2024. Archived from the original on 24 September 2024 . Retrieved 24 September 2024 . ^ Fabian, Emanuel; Spiro, Amy (6 August 2024). \"Final unaccounted for October 7 victim died in onslaught, IDF confirms\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 21 September 2024 . Retrieved 24 September 2024 . ^ \"Israel social security data reveals true picture of Oct 7 deaths\" . France 24 . 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023 . Retrieved 18 December 2023 . ^ \"WHO Health Cluster Dashboard – West Bank and Gaza\" . World Health Organization – Eastern Mediterranean Region (Occupied Palestinian Territory) . World Health Organization. 6 April 2026 . Retrieved 8 May 2026 – via WHO Health Cluster Dashboard – West and Gaza. \"WHO OPT Dashboards\" . ^ Overton, Iain (2 August 2024). \"Netanyahu got it wrong before the US Congress: IDF's clean performance in Gaza is a lie\" . Action on Armed Violence . Retrieved 9 October 2024 . ^ Gaffney, Adam (30 May 2024). \"Don't Believe the Conspiracies About the Gaza Death Toll\" . The Nation . ISSN 0027-8378 . Retrieved 9 October 2024 . ^ \"Swords of Iron: Civilian Casualties\" . gov.il . 3 December 2025 . Retrieved 21 January 2026 . ^ \"1,152 security personnel killed, 885 children bereaved: Two years on from Oct. 7, Defense Ministry data shows the toll of war\" . Times of Israel . 6 October 2025. ^ Bisset, Victoria; Ledur, Júlia; Shapiro, Leslie (5 March 2025). \"Monitoring the status of hostages still in Gaza after Hamas's attack\" . The Washington Post . ^ \"IDF soldier killed in friendly fire incident in southern Gaza\" . Ynet . 26 February 2026. ^ Ali, Marium; Duggal, Hanna (26 August 2025). \"Here are the names of the journalists Israel killed in Gaza\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 29 September 2025 . Retrieved 13 April 2026 . ^ Hall, Rachel (10 October 2024). \" \"I am physically here, but mentally in Gaza\" says lecturer now living in UK\" . The Guardian . ^ \"Over 1,000 humanitarians have been killed in three years, Security Council hears\" . UN News . 8 April 2026 . Retrieved 13 April 2026 . ^ \"UNRWA Situation Report #216 on the Humanitarian Crisis in the Gaza Strip and the Occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem\" . UNRWA . 8 April 2026 . Retrieved 13 April 2026 . ^ Saric, Ivana (8 November 2024). \"Nearly 70% of verified deaths in Gaza are women and children, UN report finds\" . Axios . ^ \"Six-month update report on the human rights situation in Gaza\" (PDF) . OHCHR . 8 November 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 November 2024. ^ Jamaluddine, Zeina; Abukmail, Hanan; Aly, Sarah; Campbell, Oona M R; Checchi, Francesco (January 2025). \"Traumatic injury mortality in the Gaza Strip from Oct 7, 2023, to June 30, 2024: a capture–recapture analysis\" . The Lancet . 405 (10477): 469– 477. doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(24)02678-3 . PMID 39799952 . ^ \"How many people have died in Gaza?\" . The Economist . 8 May 2025. The researchers found that the overlap was so small that the true number of deaths was probably 46-107% higher than the official ministry total. If you assume that the ratio has stayed the same since last June (and not fallen, as systems caught up during the ceasefire, say) and apply them to the current tally, it would suggest that between 77,000 and 109,000 Gazans have been killed, 4-5% of the territory's pre-war population (see chart). ^ Spagat, Michael; Pederson, Jon; Shikaki, Khalil; Robbins, Michael; Bendavid, Eran; Håvard, Hegre; Guha-Sapir, Debarati (18 February 2026). \"Violent and non-violent death tolls for the Gaza conflict: new primary evidence from a population-representative field survey\" . The Lancet . 14 (4): e552– e559. doi : 10.1016/S2214-109X(25)00522-4 . PMID 41722607 . Retrieved 18 February 2026 . ^ Graham-Harrison, Emma; Abraham, Yuval (21 August 2025). \"Revealed: Israeli military's own data indicates civilian death rate of 83% in Gaza war\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 22 August 2025 . ^ \" \"hagradian\" habriti bekotrat roshit: 83% mehaharogim be'eza – ezrachim. tza\"le mikchish\" \"הגרדיאן\" הבריטי בכותרת ראשית: 83% מההרוגים בעזה – אזרחים. צה\"ל מכחיש [The British \"Guardian\" headline: 83% of those killed in Gaza are civilians. IDF denies]. Ynet (in Hebrew). 21 August 2025 . Retrieved 22 August 2025 . ^ Azza Guergues, How 100,000 Palestinians Are Surviving in Egypt Without Refugee Status , Foreign Policy 15 August 2024 ^ \"Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel – reported impact | Day 215\" . United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs – occupied Palestinian territory . 8 May 2024 . Retrieved 13 May 2024 . ^ Tantesh, Malak A.; Graham-Harrison, Emma (15 August 2024). \"Gaza rubble likely to conceal untold horrors to swell 40,000 death toll\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 22 August 2024 . Retrieved 19 August 2024 . ^ Massoud, Bassam; Fick, Maggie (23 December 2023). \"Gaza death toll: why counting the dead has become a daily struggle\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 14 January 2024. ^ Khadder, Kareem; Haq, Sanna Noor (22 October 2024). \"More than 100,000 Palestinians have been injured in Gaza since last October, according to health ministry\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 22 October 2024. ^ \"Gaza: 'Sickening normalisation' of suffering, amid attacks on people and aid convoys\" . UN News . United Nations . 13 December 2024. Archived from the original on 19 December 2024 . Retrieved 21 December 2024 . ^ \"What is Gaza's Ministry of Health and how does it calculate the war's death toll?\" . Associated Press . 26 October 2023 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ \"New Gaza Health Ministry list identifies over 72,000 Palestinians killed in IDF fire in Gaza\" . Haaretz . 3 March 2026 . Retrieved 5 March 2026 . ^ \"Israel/Occupied Palestinian Territory: Targeting Civilians: Murder, Hostage-Taking and Other Violations by Palestinian Armed Groups in Israel and Gaza\" . Amnesty International . 11 December 2025 . Retrieved 30 January 2026 . ^ Shurafa, Wafaa; Mroue, Bassem (11 November 2023). \"Fighting intensifies at Gaza's largest hospital. Its director says patients have died because the power is out\" . Associated Press . Retrieved 11 November 2023 . ^ \"Israeli airstrikes near Syria's Aleppo kill several, including an Iranian adviser, reports say\" . Associated Press . 3 June 2024. Archived from the original on 27 September 2024 . Retrieved 30 August 2024 . ^ \"Israel says it struck Yemen's Hodeidah in response to Houthi attacks\" . Al Jazeera English . 20 July 2024 . Retrieved 28 August 2024 . ^ Sewell, Abby (31 July 2024). \"Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh is killed in Iran by an alleged Israeli strike, threatening escalation\" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 31 July 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . ^ \"1,152 security personnel killed, 885 children bereaved: Two years on from Oct. 7, Defense Ministry data shows the toll of war\" . Times Of Israel . 6 October 2025. ^ Zitun, Yoav (4 August 2024). \"Service extension law not yet approved, fighters in uncertainty: 'They are taken for granted' \" . Ynet . Retrieved 6 August 2024 . ^ \"Defense ministry expects 100,000 disabled IDF veterans by 2030, half to be related to mental health\" . Haaretz . 14 August 2024 . Retrieved 14 August 2024 . ^ \"IDF suicides tied to combat trauma, internal probes said to reveal\" . The Times of Israel . 3 August 2025. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Part of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict As of 3 May 2026 , at least 75,811 people (73,770+ Palestinians and 2,039+ Israelis) have been reported killed in the Gaza war according to the Gaza Health Ministry (GHM) and Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, including 270 journalists and media workers , 120 academics, and over 560 humanitarian aid workers, a number that includes 391 employees of UNRWA . A study by OHCHR found that 70% of the Palestinians killed in residential buildings or similar housing were women and children . In January 2025, an analysis of deaths between October 2023 and 30 June 2024 estimated 64,260 deaths from traumatic injury during this period, and likely exceeding 70,000 by October 2024, with 59.1% of them being women, children and the elderly. It concluded that the GHM undercounted trauma-related deaths by 41% in its report, and also noted that its findings \"do not account for non-trauma-related deaths.\" A comparable estimate up to May 2025 would be 93,000 (77,000 to 109,000), representing 4–5% of Gaza's pre-war population. Another casualty analysis, published in February 2026, estimated 75,200 violent deaths and 8,540 excess non-violent deaths between 7 October 2023 and 5 January 2025. The estimate of violent deaths is 34.7% higher than the GHM's casualty count at the time. Of the violent deaths, the researchers estimate that 56.2% were women, children, and elderly individuals. A May 2025 investigation found that a classified IDF database listed 8,900 Palestinian fighters as dead or likely dead, or 17% of the 53,000 death toll at the time, which if correct would indicate that 83% of the dead were civilians—among conflicts since 1989, only the Srebrenica massacre (though not the Bosnian war overall), the siege of Mariupol , and the Rwandan genocide have seen a higher rate of civilian casualties. In response, the IDF said that the numbers in the article are incorrect. A survey by the Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research (PCPSR) reported showed over 60% of Gazans have lost family members since the war began. Thousands of more dead bodies are thought to be under the rubble of destroyed buildings. The number of injured is greater than 100,000; United Nations agencies have reported that Gaza is now home to the highest number of child amputees per capita in the world. The majority of casualties have been in the Gaza Strip . The GHM total casualty count does not distinguish Palestinian deaths by Israeli attacks from those by other means, like friendly fire, and describes all casualties as victims of \"Israeli aggression\". On 3 March 2026, the GHM published the names, gender and birth date of 72,004 individual Palestinians whose identities were confirmed and continues to attempt to identify all casualties. The October 7 attacks on Israel killed 1,195 people, including 815 civilians. Casualties have also occurred in other parts of Israel, as well as in southern Lebanon , Syria , Yemen , and Iran . As reported by the Defense Ministry, the total number of Israeli fatalities as of October 2025 is 1,152. This figure encompasses soldiers, police personnel, Shin Bet operatives, and civilian security officials who died on duty, as well as those who succumbed to accidents, illness, or suicide. Notably, around 42% of the deceased were individuals under the age of 21. According to the Israeli Ministry of Defense's Rehabilitation Division, about 1,000 soldiers are wounded every month. In August 2024, the ministry predicted that it would have to account for 100,000 disabled IDF veterans by 2030 due to the war. An August 2025 report indicated that the rise in suicides among IDF soldiers was due to psychological trauma resulting from the prolonged conflict. ^ \"October 7 Crimes Against Humanity, War Crimes by Hamas-led Groups\" . Human Rights Watch . 17 July 2024. Archived from the original on 24 September 2024 . Retrieved 24 September 2024 . ^ Fabian, Emanuel; Spiro, Amy (6 August 2024). \"Final unaccounted for October 7 victim died in onslaught, IDF confirms\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 21 September 2024 . Retrieved 24 September 2024 . ^ \"Israel social security data reveals true picture of Oct 7 deaths\" . France 24 . 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023 . Retrieved 18 December 2023 . ^ \"WHO Health Cluster Dashboard – West Bank and Gaza\" . World Health Organization – Eastern Mediterranean Region (Occupied Palestinian Territory) . World Health Organization. 6 April 2026 . Retrieved 8 May 2026 – via WHO Health Cluster Dashboard – West and Gaza. \"WHO OPT Dashboards\" . ^ Overton, Iain (2 August 2024). \"Netanyahu got it wrong before the US Congress: IDF's clean performance in Gaza is a lie\" . Action on Armed Violence . Retrieved 9 October 2024 . ^ Gaffney, Adam (30 May 2024). \"Don't Believe the Conspiracies About the Gaza Death Toll\" . The Nation . ISSN 0027-8378 . Retrieved 9 October 2024 . ^ \"Swords of Iron: Civilian Casualties\" . gov.il . 3 December 2025 . Retrieved 21 January 2026 . ^ \"1,152 security personnel killed, 885 children bereaved: Two years on from Oct. 7, Defense Ministry data shows the toll of war\" . Times of Israel . 6 October 2025. ^ Bisset, Victoria; Ledur, Júlia; Shapiro, Leslie (5 March 2025). \"Monitoring the status of hostages still in Gaza after Hamas's attack\" . The Washington Post . ^ \"IDF soldier killed in friendly fire incident in southern Gaza\" . Ynet . 26 February 2026. ^ Ali, Marium; Duggal, Hanna (26 August 2025). \"Here are the names of the journalists Israel killed in Gaza\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 29 September 2025 . Retrieved 13 April 2026 . ^ Hall, Rachel (10 October 2024). \" \"I am physically here, but mentally in Gaza\" says lecturer now living in UK\" . The Guardian . ^ \"Over 1,000 humanitarians have been killed in three years, Security Council hears\" . UN News . 8 April 2026 . Retrieved 13 April 2026 . ^ \"UNRWA Situation Report #216 on the Humanitarian Crisis in the Gaza Strip and the Occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem\" . UNRWA . 8 April 2026 . Retrieved 13 April 2026 . ^ Saric, Ivana (8 November 2024). \"Nearly 70% of verified deaths in Gaza are women and children, UN report finds\" . Axios . ^ \"Six-month update report on the human rights situation in Gaza\" (PDF) . OHCHR . 8 November 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 November 2024. ^ Jamaluddine, Zeina; Abukmail, Hanan; Aly, Sarah; Campbell, Oona M R; Checchi, Francesco (January 2025). \"Traumatic injury mortality in the Gaza Strip from Oct 7, 2023, to June 30, 2024: a capture–recapture analysis\" . The Lancet . 405 (10477): 469– 477. doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(24)02678-3 . PMID 39799952 . ^ \"How many people have died in Gaza?\" . The Economist . 8 May 2025. The researchers found that the overlap was so small that the true number of deaths was probably 46-107% higher than the official ministry total. If you assume that the ratio has stayed the same since last June (and not fallen, as systems caught up during the ceasefire, say) and apply them to the current tally, it would suggest that between 77,000 and 109,000 Gazans have been killed, 4-5% of the territory's pre-war population (see chart). ^ Spagat, Michael; Pederson, Jon; Shikaki, Khalil; Robbins, Michael; Bendavid, Eran; Håvard, Hegre; Guha-Sapir, Debarati (18 February 2026). \"Violent and non-violent death tolls for the Gaza conflict: new primary evidence from a population-representative field survey\" . The Lancet . 14 (4): e552– e559. doi : 10.1016/S2214-109X(25)00522-4 . PMID 41722607 . Retrieved 18 February 2026 . ^ Graham-Harrison, Emma; Abraham, Yuval (21 August 2025). \"Revealed: Israeli military's own data indicates civilian death rate of 83% in Gaza war\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 22 August 2025 . ^ \" \"hagradian\" habriti bekotrat roshit: 83% mehaharogim be'eza – ezrachim. tza\"le mikchish\" \"הגרדיאן\" הבריטי בכותרת ראשית: 83% מההרוגים בעזה – אזרחים. צה\"ל מכחיש [The British \"Guardian\" headline: 83% of those killed in Gaza are civilians. IDF denies]. Ynet (in Hebrew). 21 August 2025 . Retrieved 22 August 2025 . ^ Azza Guergues, How 100,000 Palestinians Are Surviving in Egypt Without Refugee Status , Foreign Policy 15 August 2024 ^ \"Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel – reported impact | Day 215\" . United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs – occupied Palestinian territory . 8 May 2024 . Retrieved 13 May 2024 . ^ Tantesh, Malak A.; Graham-Harrison, Emma (15 August 2024). \"Gaza rubble likely to conceal untold horrors to swell 40,000 death toll\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 22 August 2024 . Retrieved 19 August 2024 . ^ Massoud, Bassam; Fick, Maggie (23 December 2023). \"Gaza death toll: why counting the dead has become a daily struggle\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 14 January 2024. ^ Khadder, Kareem; Haq, Sanna Noor (22 October 2024). \"More than 100,000 Palestinians have been injured in Gaza since last October, according to health ministry\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 22 October 2024. ^ \"Gaza: 'Sickening normalisation' of suffering, amid attacks on people and aid convoys\" . UN News . United Nations . 13 December 2024. Archived from the original on 19 December 2024 . Retrieved 21 December 2024 . ^ \"What is Gaza's Ministry of Health and how does it calculate the war's death toll?\" . Associated Press . 26 October 2023 . Retrieved 31 December 2025 . ^ \"New Gaza Health Ministry list identifies over 72,000 Palestinians killed in IDF fire in Gaza\" . Haaretz . 3 March 2026 . Retrieved 5 March 2026 . ^ \"Israel/Occupied Palestinian Territory: Targeting Civilians: Murder, Hostage-Taking and Other Violations by Palestinian Armed Groups in Israel and Gaza\" . Amnesty International . 11 December 2025 . Retrieved 30 January 2026 . ^ Shurafa, Wafaa; Mroue, Bassem (11 November 2023). \"Fighting intensifies at Gaza's largest hospital. Its director says patients have died because the power is out\" . Associated Press . Retrieved 11 November 2023 . ^ \"Israeli airstrikes near Syria's Aleppo kill several, including an Iranian adviser, reports say\" . Associated Press . 3 June 2024. Archived from the original on 27 September 2024 . Retrieved 30 August 2024 . ^ \"Israel says it struck Yemen's Hodeidah in response to Houthi attacks\" . Al Jazeera English . 20 July 2024 . Retrieved 28 August 2024 . ^ Sewell, Abby (31 July 2024). \"Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh is killed in Iran by an alleged Israeli strike, threatening escalation\" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 31 July 2024 . Retrieved 31 July 2024 . ^ \"1,152 security personnel killed, 885 children bereaved: Two years on from Oct. 7, Defense Ministry data shows the toll of war\" . Times Of Israel . 6 October 2025. ^ Zitun, Yoav (4 August 2024). \"Service extension law not yet approved, fighters in uncertainty: 'They are taken for granted' \" . Ynet . Retrieved 6 August 2024 . ^ \"Defense ministry expects 100,000 disabled IDF veterans by 2030, half to be related to mental health\" . Haaretz . 14 August 2024 . Retrieved 14 August 2024 . ^ \"IDF suicides tied to combat trauma, internal probes said to reveal\" . The Times of Israel . 3 August 2025. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Anti-Defamation League",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-Defamation_League&oldid=1361641885",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-Defamation_League&oldid=1366383608",
   "lead_before": "International Jewish organization For other uses, see Anti-Defamation League (disambiguation) . The Anti-Defamation League ( ADL ), formerly known as the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith , is a New York-based international advocacy organization founded in 1913 with the stated purpose of combating antisemitism , as well as other forms of bigotry and discrimination . The ADL is also known for its pro-Israel advocacy, and, since the 1970s, it has promoted the concept of a new antisemitism , describing criticism of Israel or opposition to Zionism as antisemitic. The ADL is a non-governmental organization , its CEO is Jonathan Greenblatt , and its headquarters are located in Murray Hill , in the New York City borough of Manhattan . It has 25 regional offices in the United States including a government relations office in Washington, D.C., as well as an office in Israel and staff in Europe. In 2023, the ADL reported total revenue of $38.3 million, the vast majority from contributions and grants. Its operating expenses for 2023 were reported at $57.9 million. It was founded in late September 1913 by the Independent Order of B'nai B'rith , a Jewish service organization , in the wake of the contentious murder conviction of Leo Frank . In 2009, the ADL became independent from B'nai B'rith and continued as an independent US section 501(c)(3) nonprofit . In an early campaign, the ADL and allied groups pressured the automaker Henry Ford , who had published virulently antisemitic propaganda. In the 1930s, the ADL worked with the American Jewish Committee (AJC) to oppose pro-Nazi activity in the United States. It campaigned for major civil rights legislation in the 1960s. During this period, it also worked with the NAACP to discredit far-right organizations such as the John Birch Society . In the 1980s, it was involved in propaganda against Nelson Mandela of South Africa before embracing him the following decade. After the 1967 Arab–Israeli War , and especially with the publication of its 1974 book The New Anti-Semitism , the ADL has sought to popularize the concept of a ' new antisemitism ' identifying opposition to Zionism and some criticism of Israel with antisemitism. It has received criticism, including from members of its staff, that such advocacy has diverted the ADL from its historical fight against antisemitism. During the Gaza war and genocide , the ADL has been criticized for exploiting this conflation to delegitimize and silence criticism of Israel. ^ \"Anti Defamation League – Nonprofit Explorer\" . ProPublica . May 9, 2013. Archived from the original on November 14, 2019 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ \"Board of Directors\" . Anti-Defamation League . Retrieved September 3, 2025 . ^ \"B'nai B'rith. Anti-defamation League\" . Amistad Research Center . Archived from the original on September 13, 2023 . Retrieved September 9, 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Golembeski-2023 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Craig, K. M. (2004). \"Retaliation, Fear, or Rage\". In Phyllis B. Gerstenfeld, Diana R. Grant (ed.). Crimes of Hate: Selected Readings . Sage. p. 58. ISBN 9780761929437 . Archived from the original on November 3, 2023 . Retrieved October 23, 2023 . ^ Hendricks, Nancy (2019). \"Anti-Defamation League\". In Ainsworth, Scott H.; Harward, Brian M. (eds.). Political Groups, Parties, and Organizations That Shaped America: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection . Vol. 1. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781440851964 . ^ Theodore Sasson, The New American Zionism, New York University Press 2015 ISBN 978-1-479-80611-9 p.45. ^ Cite error: The named reference Berkman 2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Zimmerman 2025 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Pappé, Ilan (2024). Lobbying for Zionism on Both Sides of the Atlantic . A Oneworld book. London: Oneworld. ISBN 978-0-86154-403-5 . After 1967, combating anti-Semitism against American Jews ceased to be its main task - now, cheered on by AIPAC, it sought to portray certain 'anti-Israel' actions as anti-Semitic. It propagandised against any attempt to pressure Israel into withdrawing from the occupied territories. ^ Cite error: The named reference Shachtman-2025 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The Anti-Defamation League: Israel's Attack Dog in the US\" . The Nation. January 31, 2024. Archived from the original on February 4, 2024 . Retrieved February 4, 2024 . The ADL's priority today remains—as it has for decades—going after Americans who are simply opposed to Israel's endless occupation and oppression of Palestinians. ^ \"Regional Offices\" . Anti-Defamation League . Retrieved September 3, 2025 . ^ \"Anti-Semitism Globally\" . Anti-Defamation League . Archived from the original on December 27, 2019 . Retrieved December 10, 2019 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Blakeslee was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross-2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Times of Israel-2023 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Frankel, Glenn (May 24, 2010). \"Israel's Most Illicit Affair\" . Foreign Policy . Archived from the original on March 28, 2023 . Retrieved March 28, 2023 . ^ Pogrund, Benjamin (May 24, 2010). \"The Unspoken Alliance: Israel's Secret Relationship With Apartheid South Africa\" . The Jewish Chronicle . Archived from the original on March 28, 2023 . Retrieved March 27, 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Guyer-2024 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Romeyn, Esther (March 14, 2020). \"(Anti) 'new antisemitism' as a transnational field of racial governance\". Patterns of Prejudice . 54 ( 1– 2). Informa UK Limited: 199– 214. doi : 10.1080/0031322x.2019.1696048 . ISSN 0031-322X . S2CID 219029515 . In the United States, one the strongest promoters of various installments of the 'new antisemitism' thesis has been the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) which in 1974 published a book entitled The New Anti-Semitism. ^ Levin, Geoffery P. (2021). \"Before the New Antisemitism: Arab Critics of Zionism and American Jewish Politics, 1917–1974\". American Jewish History . 105 ( 1– 2). Project MUSE: 103– 126. doi : 10.1353/ajh.2021.0005 . ISSN 1086-3141 . S2CID 239741775 . The ADL responded to these critiques as they came, but also in a cohesive way through a new book by Forster and Epstein titled The New Anti-Semitism, which would be their most important and best-selling publication.98 Like their previous books, The New Anti-Semitism stitched together a list of types of antisemitic threats, which had grown in length. In contrast to prior books focused on the far right and Arab propagandists, The New Anti-Semitism included the right-wing threat alongside threats that emanated from \"The USSR, Western Europe, Latin America,\" and included \"the Radical Left,\" \"Arabs and Pro-Arabs,\" and Black Americans. Taken collectively, this bundle of threats, taken to include anti-Zionism, has been called the \"New Anti-Semitism\" from the book's publication onwards. ^ Cite error: The named reference Raab-1974 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Guyer, Jonathan (May 25, 2023). \"The high-stakes debate over how the US defines \"antisemitism\" \" . Vox . Archived from the original on September 27, 2023 . Retrieved September 27, 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "International Jewish organization For other uses, see Anti-Defamation League (disambiguation) . The Anti-Defamation League ( ADL ), formerly known as the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith , is a New York-based international advocacy organization founded in 1913 with the stated purpose of combating antisemitism , as well as other forms of bigotry and discrimination . The ADL is also known for its pro-Israel advocacy. The ADL is a non-governmental organization , its CEO is Jonathan Greenblatt , and its headquarters are located in Murray Hill , in the New York City borough of Manhattan . It has 25 regional offices in the United States including a government relations office in Washington, D.C., as well as an office in Israel and staff in Europe. In 2023, the ADL reported total revenue of $38.3 million, the vast majority from contributions and grants. Its operating expenses for 2023 were reported at $57.9 million. It was founded in late September 1913 by the Independent Order of B'nai B'rith , a Jewish service organization , in the wake of the contentious murder conviction of Leo Frank . In 2009, the ADL became independent from B'nai B'rith and continued as an independent US section 501(c)(3) nonprofit . In an early campaign, the ADL and allied groups pressured the automaker Henry Ford , who had published virulently antisemitic propaganda. In the 1930s, the ADL worked with the American Jewish Committee (AJC) to oppose pro-Nazi activity in the United States. It campaigned for major civil rights legislation in the 1960s. During this period, it also worked with the NAACP to discredit far-right organizations such as the John Birch Society . In the 1980s, it was involved in propaganda against Nelson Mandela of South Africa before embracing him the following decade. The ADL’s own founding formula was \"secure justice and fair treatment to all\", which it still presents as part of its civil-rights mission. Historically, the ADL participated in legal civil-rights advocacy around desegregation . It filed or joined amicus briefs in major racial-equality cases, including Brown v. Board of Education . ADL materials and later court filings also cite its briefs in cases such as Shelley v. Kraemer , Sweatt v. Painter , NAACP v. Alabama , Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. , and Runyon v. McCrary , all cases outside a narrowly Jewish framework and tied to racial equality, housing, education, association, or civil rights. After the 1967 Arab–Israeli War , and especially with the publication of its 1974 book The New Anti-Semitism , the ADL has sought to popularize the concept of a ' new antisemitism ' identifying opposition to Zionism and some criticism of Israel with antisemitism. It has received criticism, including from members of its staff, that such advocacy has diverted the ADL from its historical fight against antisemitism. During the Gaza war and genocide , the ADL has been criticized for exploiting this conflation to delegitimize and silence criticism of Israel. ^ \"Anti Defamation League – Nonprofit Explorer\" . ProPublica . May 9, 2013. Archived from the original on November 14, 2019 . Retrieved April 9, 2021 . ^ \"Board of Directors\" . Anti-Defamation League . Retrieved September 3, 2025 . ^ \"B'nai B'rith. Anti-defamation League\" . Amistad Research Center . Archived from the original on September 13, 2023 . Retrieved September 9, 2023 . ^ Golembeski 2023 . ^ Craig, K. M. (2004). \"Retaliation, Fear, or Rage\". In Phyllis B. Gerstenfeld; Diana R. Grant (eds.). Crimes of Hate: Selected Readings . SAGE Publications . p. 58. ISBN 9780761929437 . Archived from the original on November 3, 2023 . Retrieved October 23, 2023 . Sasson, Theodore (2015). The New American Zionism . New York University Press . p. 45. ISBN 978-1-479-80611-9 . Golembeski 2023 Hendricks 2019 Shachtman 2025 ^ Cite error: The named reference Berkman 2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Zimmerman 2025 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Pappé, Ilan (2024). Lobbying for Zionism on Both Sides of the Atlantic . A Oneworld book. London: Oneworld. ISBN 978-0-86154-403-5 . After 1967, combating anti-Semitism against American Jews ceased to be its main task - now, cheered on by AIPAC, it sought to portray certain 'anti-Israel' actions as anti-Semitic. It propagandised against any attempt to pressure Israel into withdrawing from the occupied territories. ^ \"The Anti-Defamation League: Israel's Attack Dog in the US\" . The Nation. January 31, 2024. Archived from the original on February 4, 2024 . Retrieved February 4, 2024 . The ADL's priority today remains—as it has for decades—going after Americans who are simply opposed to Israel's endless occupation and oppression of Palestinians. ^ \"Regional Offices\" . Anti-Defamation League . Retrieved September 3, 2025 . ^ \"Anti-Semitism Globally\" . Anti-Defamation League . Archived from the original on December 27, 2019 . Retrieved December 10, 2019 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Blakeslee was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hendricks 2019 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross-2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Times of Israel-2023 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Frankel, Glenn (May 24, 2010). \"Israel's Most Illicit Affair\" . Foreign Policy . Archived from the original on March 28, 2023 . Retrieved March 28, 2023 . ^ Pogrund, Benjamin (May 24, 2010). \"The Unspoken Alliance: Israel's Secret Relationship With Apartheid South Africa\" . The Jewish Chronicle . Archived from the original on March 28, 2023 . Retrieved March 27, 2023 . ^ \"ADL Impact by the Decade | ADL\" . www.adl.org . Retrieved July 7, 2026 . ^ \"Our Mission and History | ADL\" . www.adl.org . Retrieved July 7, 2026 . ^ \"RUNYON v. MCCRARY, 427 U.S. 160 (1976)\" . FindLaw . Retrieved July 7, 2026 . Briefs of amici curiae urging affirmance in Nos. 75-62, 75-66, and 75-278 were filed by Solicitor General Bork, Assistant Attorney General Pottinger, Deputy Solicitor General Wallace, John P. Rupp, Brian K. Landsberg, and Judith E. Wolf for the United States; by Thomas J. Schwab for the Council for American Private Education et al.; and by Terrence Roche Murphy, Thomas C. Matthews, Jr., and David Rubin for the National Education Assn. Larry M. Lavinsky, Arnold Forster, Theodore R. Mann, Paul S. Berger, Melvin L. Wulf, Samuel Rabinove, and Nathaniel Jones filed a brief for the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith et al. as amici curiae urging affirmance in No. 75-62. ^ \"Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co., 392 U.S. 409 (1968)\" . Justia Law . Retrieved July 7, 2026 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Guyer-2024 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Romeyn, Esther (March 14, 2020). \"(Anti) 'new antisemitism' as a transnational field of racial governance\". Patterns of Prejudice . 54 ( 1– 2). Informa UK Limited: 199– 214. doi : 10.1080/0031322x.2019.1696048 . ISSN 0031-322X . S2CID 219029515 . In the United States, one the strongest promoters of various installments of the 'new antisemitism' thesis has been the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) which in 1974 published a book entitled The New Anti-Semitism. ^ Levin, Geoffery P. (2021). \"Before the New Antisemitism: Arab Critics of Zionism and American Jewish Politics, 1917–1974\". American Jewish History . 105 ( 1– 2). Project MUSE: 103– 126. doi : 10.1353/ajh.2021.0005 . ISSN 1086-3141 . S2CID 239741775 . The ADL responded to these critiques as they came, but also in a cohesive way through a new book by Forster and Epstein titled The New Anti-Semitism, which would be their most important and best-selling publication.98 Like their previous books, The New Anti-Semitism stitched together a list of types of antisemitic threats, which had grown in length. In contrast to prior books focused on the far right and Arab propagandists, The New Anti-Semitism included the right-wing threat alongside threats that emanated from \"The USSR, Western Europe, Latin America,\" and included \"the Radical Left,\" \"Arabs and Pro-Arabs,\" and Black Americans. Taken collectively, this bundle of threats, taken to include anti-Zionism, has been called the \"New Anti-Semitism\" from the book's publication onwards. ^ Cite error: The named reference Raab-1974 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Guyer, Jonathan (May 25, 2023). \"The high-stakes debate over how the US defines \"antisemitism\" \" . Vox . Archived from the original on September 27, 2023 . Retrieved September 27, 2023 . ^ Shachtman 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Mahmoud Abbas",
   "pageid": 232595,
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   "lead_before": "President of Palestine since 2005 For other people named Mahmoud Abbas, see Mahmoud Abbas (disambiguation) . Not to be confused with Ali Mahmoud Abbas . Mahmoud Abbas ( Arabic : مَحْمُود عَبَّاس , romanized : Maḥmūd ʿAbbās ; born 15 November 1935), also known by the kunya Abu Mazen (Arabic: أَبُو مَازِن , ʾAbū Māzin ), is a Palestinian politician who has been serving as the second president of Palestine and the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) since 2005. He has also been the fourth chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) since 2004. Abbas is also a member of the Fatah party and was elected the party's chairman in 2009. Abbas was elected on 9 January 2005 to serve as President of the Palestinian National Authority until 15 January 2009, but extended his term until the next election in 2010, citing the PLO constitution, and on 16 December 2009 was voted into office indefinitely by the PLO Central Council . As a result, Fatah's main rival, Hamas , initially announced that it would not recognize the extension or view Abbas as the rightful president. Nonetheless, Abbas is internationally recognized in his position(s) and Hamas and Fatah conducted numerous negotiations in the following years, leading to an agreement in April 2014 for a Unity Government (which lasted until October 2016) and to the recognition of his office by Hamas. Abbas was chosen to continue serving as president by the PLO Central Council on 23 November 2008. Abbas served as the first prime minister of the Palestinian Authority from March to September 2003. Before being named prime minister, Abbas led the PLO Negotiations Affairs Department . Abbas has been subject to both criticism and controversy, having been accused of corruption, as well as distorting Jewish history and engaging in Holocaust trivialization . Abbas was a key player in negotiations for peace and in talks laying the groundwork for the Israel–Palestine two-state solution . ^ Cite error: The named reference Jpost 2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Keinon, Herb (10 May 2014). \"Politics: Fatah-Hamas unity talks breed Likud harmony\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 3 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference ap_060903 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Current talks 'last chance' for just peace with Israel, Palestinian leader tells UN\" . United Nations News Centre . 26 September 2013. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020 . Retrieved 26 January 2020 . ^ \"Hamas: Abbas no longer president\" . United Press International . 9 January 2009 . Retrieved 26 January 2020 . ^ Abu Toameh, Khaled (14 December 2008). \"Abbas planning to extend his own term\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 26 January 2020 . ^ Abu Toameh, Khaled (9 January 2009). \"Hamas: Abbas no longer heads PA\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 3 September 2024 . ^ Abu Toameh, Khaled (5 March 2012). \" 'No political differences between Fatah, Hamas' \" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 3 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference p2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference CNN_060903 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ al-Omari, Ghaith (19 October 2023). \"How the Palestinian Authority Failed Its People\" . The Atlantic . Retrieved 31 December 2023 . ^ Knell, Yolande (7 September 2023). \"Outrage over Abbas's antisemitic speech on Jews and Holocaust\" . BBC News . Retrieved 3 September 2024 . ^ \"Mahmoud Abbas: Biography, Palestinian Authority, Two-State Solution, & Facts\" . Britannica . 10 February 2025 . Retrieved 12 February 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "President of Palestine since 2005 For other people named Mahmoud Abbas, see Mahmoud Abbas (disambiguation) . Not to be confused with Ali Mahmoud Abbas . Mahmoud Abbas ( Arabic : مَحْمُود عَبَّاس , romanized : Maḥmūd ʿAbbās ; born 15 November 1935), also known by the kunya Abu Mazen (Arabic: أَبُو مَازِن , ʾAbū Māzin ), is a Palestinian politician who has been serving as the second president of Palestine and the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) since 2005. He has also been the fourth chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) since 2004. Abbas is also a member of the Fatah party and was elected the party's chairman in 2009. Abbas was elected on 9 January 2005 to serve as President of the Palestinian National Authority until 15 January 2009, but extended his term until the next election in 2010, citing the PLO constitution, and on 16 December 2009 was voted into office indefinitely by the PLO Central Council . As a result, Fatah's main rival, Hamas , initially announced that it would not recognize the extension or view Abbas as the rightful president. Nonetheless, Abbas is internationally recognized in his position(s) and Hamas and Fatah conducted numerous negotiations in the following years, leading to an agreement in April 2014 for a Unity Government (which lasted until October 2016) and to the recognition of his office by Hamas. Abbas was chosen to continue serving as president by the PLO Central Council on 23 November 2008. Abbas served as the first prime minister of the Palestinian Authority from March to September 2003. Before being named prime minister, Abbas led the PLO Negotiations Affairs Department . Abbas has been subject to both criticism and controversy, having been accused of corruption, as well as distorting Jewish history and engaging in Holocaust trivialization . Abbas was a key player in negotiations for peace and in talks laying the groundwork for the Israel–Palestine two-state solution . ^ Cite error: The named reference Jpost 2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Keinon, Herb (10 May 2014). \"Politics: Fatah-Hamas unity talks breed Likud harmony\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 3 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference ap_060903 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Current talks 'last chance' for just peace with Israel, Palestinian leader tells UN\" . United Nations News Centre . 26 September 2013. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020 . Retrieved 26 January 2020 . ^ \"Hamas: Abbas no longer president\" . United Press International . 9 January 2009 . Retrieved 26 January 2020 . ^ Abu Toameh, Khaled (14 December 2008). \"Abbas planning to extend his own term\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 26 January 2020 . ^ Abu Toameh, Khaled (9 January 2009). \"Hamas: Abbas no longer heads PA\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 3 September 2024 . ^ Abu Toameh, Khaled (5 March 2012). \" 'No political differences between Fatah, Hamas' \" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 3 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference p2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference CNN_060903 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ al-Omari, Ghaith (19 October 2023). \"How the Palestinian Authority Failed Its People\" . The Atlantic . Retrieved 31 December 2023 . ^ Knell, Yolande (7 September 2023). \"Outrage over Abbas's antisemitic speech on Jews and Holocaust\" . BBC News . Retrieved 3 September 2024 . ^ \"Mahmoud Abbas: Biography, Palestinian Authority, Two-State Solution, & Facts\" . Britannica . 10 February 2025 . Retrieved 12 February 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Roger Waters",
   "pageid": 173825,
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   "lead_before": "English musician, co-founder of Pink Floyd (born 1943) George Roger Waters (born 6 September 1943) is an English singer-songwriter, musician and political activist . In 1965, he co-founded the rock band Pink Floyd as the bassist. Following the departure of the band's main songwriter Syd Barrett in 1968, Waters became Pink Floyd's principal lyricist, co-lead vocalist and conceptual leader until his departure in 1985. Pink Floyd achieved international success with the concept albums The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), Wish You Were Here (1975), Animals (1977), The Wall (1979), and The Final Cut (1983). By the early 1980s, they had become one of the most acclaimed and commercially successful groups in popular music. Amid creative differences, Waters left in 1985 and began a legal dispute over the use of the band's name and material. They settled out of court in 1987. His solo work includes the studio albums The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking (1984), Radio K.A.O.S. (1987), Amused to Death (1992), and Is This the Life We Really Want? (2017). In 2005, he released Ça Ira , an opera translated from Étienne and Nadine Roda-Gils's libretto about the French Revolution . In 1990, Waters staged one of the largest rock concerts in history, The Wall – Live in Berlin , with an attendance of 450,000. As a member of Pink Floyd, he was inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. Later in 2005, he reunited with Pink Floyd for the Live 8 global awareness event, their only appearance with Waters since 1981. He has toured extensively as a solo act since 1999. He performed The Dark Side of the Moon for his world tour of 2006–2008 , and The Wall Live , his tour of 2010–2013, was the highest-grossing tour by a solo artist at the time . Waters incorporates political themes in his work, many of them considered radical. He supports socialism , has defended Vladimir Putin and the Russian invasion of Ukraine , and has been ruled by a court to have made defamatory comments. Waters is a prominent supporter of Palestine in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and Gazan genocide . He supports the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) movement against Israel , and describes Israel's treatment of Palestinians as apartheid . Elements of his live show and some of his comments, such as his likening of Israel to Nazi Germany , have drawn accusations of antisemitism , which Waters has dismissed as a conflation with anti-Zionism . Waters has been dropped, banned or sanctioned by a wide variety of entities in reaction to his comments, including Major League Baseball , BMG Rights Management , the German city of Frankfurt , multiple Argentine hotels, and the country of Poland . Waters has contributed to financing a land deal that returned 4.5 acres of private property to the Shinnecock Nation . The land includes the Shinnecock Nation's ancestral burial grounds. ^ \"Roger Waters\" . Desert Island Discs . 29 May 2011. BBC Radio 4 . Archived from the original on 20 February 2014 . Retrieved 18 January 2014 . ^ Leeman, Zachary (17 January 2026). \"Piers Morgan Grills Pink Floyd Rocker Defending Dictators While Slamming 'Demented' Trump\" . Yahoo! News . Retrieved 2 February 2026 . ^ Cho, Winston (25 February 2025). \"Roger Waters defamed filmmaker with antisemitic remarks, court finds\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . ^ \"Shinnecock Burial Grounds Preserved at Sugar Loaf Hill | East End Beacon\" . 23 July 2021 . Retrieved 21 May 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "English musician and songwriter (born 1943) George Roger Waters (born 6 September 1943) is an English singer-songwriter, musician and political activist . In 1965, he co-founded the rock band Pink Floyd as the bassist. Following the departure of the band's main songwriter Syd Barrett in 1968, Waters became Pink Floyd's principal lyricist, co-lead vocalist and conceptual leader until his departure in 1985. Pink Floyd achieved international success with the concept albums The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), Wish You Were Here (1975), Animals (1977), The Wall (1979), and The Final Cut (1983). By the early 1980s, they had become one of the most acclaimed and commercially successful groups in popular music. Amid creative differences, Waters left in 1985 and began a legal dispute over the use of the band's name and material. They settled out of court in 1987. His solo work includes the studio albums The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking (1984), Radio K.A.O.S. (1987), Amused to Death (1992), and Is This the Life We Really Want? (2017). In 2005, he released Ça Ira , an opera translated from Étienne and Nadine Roda-Gils's libretto about the French Revolution . In 1990, Waters staged one of the largest rock concerts in history, The Wall – Live in Berlin , with an attendance of 450,000. As a member of Pink Floyd, he was inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. Later in 2005, he reunited with Pink Floyd for the Live 8 global awareness event, their only appearance with Waters since 1981. He has toured extensively as a solo act since 1999. He performed The Dark Side of the Moon for his world tour of 2006–2008 , and The Wall Live , his tour of 2010–2013, was the highest-grossing tour by a solo artist at the time . Waters incorporates political themes in his work, many of them considered radical. He supports socialism , has defended Vladimir Putin and the Russian invasion of Ukraine , and has been ruled by a court to have made defamatory comments. Waters is a prominent supporter of Palestine in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and Gazan genocide . He supports the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) movement against Israel , and describes Israel's treatment of Palestinians as apartheid . Elements of his live show and some of his comments, such as his likening of Israel to Nazi Germany , have drawn accusations of antisemitism , which Waters has dismissed as a conflation with anti-Zionism . Waters has been dropped, banned or sanctioned by a wide variety of entities in reaction to his comments, including Major League Baseball , BMG Rights Management , the German city of Frankfurt , multiple Argentine hotels, and the country of Poland . Waters has contributed to financing a land deal that returned 4.5 acres of private property to the Shinnecock Nation . The land includes the Shinnecock Nation's ancestral burial grounds. ^ \"Roger Waters\" . Desert Island Discs . 29 May 2011. BBC Radio 4 . Archived from the original on 20 February 2014 . Retrieved 18 January 2014 . ^ Leeman, Zachary (17 January 2026). \"Piers Morgan Grills Pink Floyd Rocker Defending Dictators While Slamming 'Demented' Trump\" . Yahoo! News . Retrieved 2 February 2026 . ^ Cho, Winston (25 February 2025). \"Roger Waters defamed filmmaker with antisemitic remarks, court finds\" . The Hollywood Reporter . Retrieved 26 February 2025 . ^ \"Shinnecock Burial Grounds Preserved at Sugar Loaf Hill | East End Beacon\" . 23 July 2021 . Retrieved 21 May 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "2000 Camp David Summit",
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   "lead_before": "Failed attempt to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict U.S. president Bill Clinton , Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat at Camp David , July 2000 The 2000 Camp David Summit was a summit meeting at Camp David between United States president Bill Clinton , Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat . The summit took place between 11 and 25 July 2000 and was an effort to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . The summit ended without an agreement, largely due to irreconcilable differences between Israelis and Palestinians on the status of Jerusalem . Its failure is considered one of the main triggers of the Second Intifada . The issues discussed included the establishment of a Palestinian state, the fate of Israeli settlements (illegal under international law), the status of Jerusalem, the question of Palestinian refugees , and potential Israeli control over the airspace and borders of a future Palestinian state. The summit ended after irreconcilable differences over who should have sovereignty over the Temple Mount (which Muslims call Haram al-Sharif or Al-Aqsa ): Barak insisted on Israeli sovereignty, while Arafat insisted on Palestinian sovereignty. Reports of the outcome of the summit have been described as illustrating the Rashomon effect , in which the multiple witnesses gave contradictory and self-serving interpretations. After the summit, the Israeli narrative was widely accepted by the American media, which sought to cast Arafat as a villain and that Palestinians did not want peace. That narrative led to the decline of the Israeli peace movement . ^ Filiu (2014). Gaza: A History . p. 251. ^ Quandt, William B. (1993). Peace process: American diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli conflict since 1967 . Washington, D.C. : Berkeley: Brookings Institution; University of California Press. pp. 368– 369. ISBN 978-0-520-08388-2 . ^ Kacowicz, Arie M. (2005). \"Rashomon in the Middle East: Clashing Narratives, Images, and Frames in the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict\" . Cooperation and Conflict . 40 (3): 343– 360. doi : 10.1177/0010836705055069 . JSTOR 45084335 . ^ Aronoff, Myron J. (2009). \"Camp David Rashomon: Contested Interpretations of the Israel/Palestine Peace Process\" . Political Science Quarterly . 124 : 143– 167. doi : 10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00645.x . ^ Shamir, S. (2005). The Enigma of Camp David. The Camp David Summit-What Went Wrong: \"...manifestation of the Rashomon syndrome...\" ^ Russell L. Riley (1 September 2016). Inside the Clinton White House: An Oral History . Oxford University Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-19-060547-6 . Camp David is a bit of a Rashomon event. There is the American Camp David, there is the Palestinian Camp David, and there is the Israeli Camp David ^ Peters 2013 , p. 5.",
   "lead_after": "Failed attempt to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict U.S. president Bill Clinton , Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat at Camp David , July 2000 The 2000 Camp David Summit was a summit meeting at Camp David between United States president Bill Clinton , Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat . The summit took place between 11 and 25 July 2000 and was an effort to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . The summit ended without an agreement, largely due to irreconcilable differences between Israelis and Palestinians on the status of Jerusalem . Its failure is considered one of the main triggers of the Second Intifada . The issues discussed included the establishment of a Palestinian state, the fate of Israeli settlements (illegal under international law), the status of Jerusalem, the question of Palestinian refugees , and potential Israeli control over the airspace and borders of a future Palestinian state. The summit ended after irreconcilable differences over who should have sovereignty over the Temple Mount (which Muslims call Haram al-Sharif or Al-Aqsa ): Barak insisted on Israeli sovereignty, while Arafat insisted on Palestinian sovereignty. Reports of the outcome of the summit have been described as illustrating the Rashomon effect , in which the multiple witnesses gave contradictory and self-serving interpretations. After the summit, the Israeli narrative was widely accepted by the American media, which sought to cast Arafat as a villain and that Palestinians did not want peace. That narrative led to the decline of the Israeli peace movement . ^ Filiu (2014). Gaza: A History . p. 251. ^ Quandt, William B. (1993). Peace process: American diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli conflict since 1967 . Washington, D.C. : Berkeley: Brookings Institution; University of California Press. pp. 368– 369. ISBN 978-0-520-08388-2 . ^ Kacowicz, Arie M. (2005). \"Rashomon in the Middle East: Clashing Narratives, Images, and Frames in the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict\" . Cooperation and Conflict . 40 (3): 343– 360. doi : 10.1177/0010836705055069 . JSTOR 45084335 . ^ Aronoff, Myron J. (2009). \"Camp David Rashomon: Contested Interpretations of the Israel/Palestine Peace Process\" . Political Science Quarterly . 124 : 143– 167. doi : 10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00645.x . ^ Shamir, S. (2005). The Enigma of Camp David. The Camp David Summit-What Went Wrong: \"...manifestation of the Rashomon syndrome...\" ^ Russell L. Riley (1 September 2016). Inside the Clinton White House: An Oral History . Oxford University Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-19-060547-6 . Camp David is a bit of a Rashomon event. There is the American Camp David, there is the Palestinian Camp David, and there is the Israeli Camp David ^ Peters 2013 , p. 5."
  },
  {
   "title": "From the river to the sea",
   "pageid": 65232516,
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   "lead_before": "Political phrase related to the Palestine region This article is about the phrase. For the territory historically comprised between the Jordan and the Mediterranean, see Palestine (region) . \"Free Palestine\" redirects here. For the Palestinian Syrian organized movement, see Free Palestine Movement . For the European political alliance, see Free Palestine Party . The region of Palestine , from the Jordan River in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west \" From the river to the sea \" ( Arabic : من النهر إلى البحر , romanized : min an-nahr ʾilā l-baḥr ; Palestinian Arabic : من المياه للمياه , romanized: min il-ṃayye la-l-ṃayye , lit. ' from the water to the water ' ) is a political slogan that refers to the area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea – an area historically known as Palestine , which was formerly ruled by the British as Mandatory Palestine , and which today encompasses Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . The phrase and its variations have been used both by Palestinians and Israelis to mean that the area should consist of one state , rather than two or three . In the 1960s, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) used it to call for what they saw as a \" decolonized \" state encompassing the entirety of Mandatory Palestine . By 1969, after several revisions, the PLO used the phrase to call for a one-state solution, that would mean \"one democratic secular state that would supersede the ethno-religious state of Israel\". Many pro-Palestinian activists describe the phrase as a call for peace, equality and an end to Israeli military rule over Palestinians, while many Jewish groups and others interpret it as a call for the destruction of Israel . Frequently, at pro-Palestine protests around the world, it has been used as a chant or rallying cry. Hamas used the phrase in its 2017 charter ; usage of the phrase by such Palestinian militant groups has led critics to say that it advocates for the dismantling of Israel, and the removal or extermination of its Jewish population. Some countries have considered criminalizing its use as an antisemitic call for violence. In other cases, courts and authorities have found that the phrase can fall within protected freedom of expression , depending on context, intent, and how it is used. An early Zionist slogan envisaged statehood extending over the two banks of the Jordan river, and when that vision proved impractical, it was substituted by the idea of a Greater Israel , an entity conceived as extending from the Jordan to the sea. The phrase has also been used by Israeli politicians. The 1977 election manifesto of the right-wing Israeli Likud party said: \"Between the sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty.\" Similar wording, such as referring to the area \"west of the Jordan river\", has also been used in the 2020s by other Israeli politicians, including Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu on 18 January 2024. ^ Salama Ghamry, Heba (3 November 2023). \" \"فلسطين من النهر إلى البحر\".. ماذا يعني الشعار ومن أين جاء؟\" [\"Palestine from the river to the sea\"... What does the slogan mean and where did it come from?]. Icona – Al-Masry Al-Youm (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 1 October 2024. ^ \"الاحتلال يقمع وقفة منددة بوعد بلفور بالقدس\" [The occupation suppresses a protest denouncing the Balfour Declaration in Jerusalem.]. Arab48 (in Arabic). 2 November 2017. Archived from the original on 16 November 2023 . Retrieved 13 November 2023 . ^ Sales, Ben (8 November 2023). \" 'From the river to the sea': The slogan that led to Rashida Tlaib's censure, explained\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 1 February 2025 . Retrieved 12 December 2023 . ^ \"The culture war over the Gaza war\" . The Economist . 28 October 2023. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023 . Retrieved 29 October 2023 . ^ Stripling, Jack (31 December 2023). \"Colleges braced for antisemitism and violence. It's happening\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 8 March 2024 . Retrieved 1 November 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Kelley-2019 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kelley (2019) : \"The Likud Party's founding charter reinforces this vision in its statement that 'between the Sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty.' [...] During the mid-1960s, the PLO embraced the slogan, but it meant something altogether different from the Zionist vision of Jewish colonization. Instead, the 1964 and 1968 charters of the Palestine National Council (PNC) demanded 'the recovery of the usurped homeland in its entirety' and the restoration of land and rights-including the right of self-determination-to the indigenous population. In other words, the PNC was calling for decolonization, but this did not mean the elimination or exclusion of all Jews from a Palestinian nation-only the settlers or colonists. According to the 1964 Charter, 'Jews who are of Palestinian origin shall be considered Palestinians if they are willing to live peacefully and loyally in Palestine.' Following the 1967 war, the Arab National Movement, led by Dr. George Habash, merged with Youth for Revenge and the Palestine Liberation Front to form the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). The PFLP embraced a Palestinian identity rooted in radical, Third World-oriented nationalism, officially identifying as Marxist–Leninist two years later. It envisioned a single, democratic, potentially socialist Palestinian state in which all peoples would enjoy citizenship. Likewise, Fatah leaders shifted from promoting the expulsion of settlers to embracing all Jews as citizens in a secular, democratic state. As one Fatah leader explained in early 1969, 'If we are fighting a Jewish state of a racial kind, which had driven the Arabs out of their lands, it is not so as to replace it with an Arab state which would in turn drive out the Jews [...] We are ready to look at anything with all our negotiating partners once our right to live in our homeland is recognized.' Thus by 1969, 'Free Palestine from the river to the sea' came to mean one democratic secular state that would supersede the ethno-religious state of Israel. Moreover, the Palestinian national movement had come to see itself as part of a global anti-imperialist movement in solidarity with other nonaligned or socialist nations, or revolutionary movements like the Black Panthers.\" ^ Kellman, Laurie (10 November 2023). \" 'From the river to the sea': Why these 6 words spark fury and passion over the Israel-Hamas war\" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 12 November 2023 . Retrieved 26 May 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \" 'From the river to the sea': Why a chant for the freedom of an occupied people became so provocative\" . Dawn.com . 28 October 2023 . Retrieved 31 October 2023 . ^ \" 'From the river to the sea'-leus is geweldsoproep, vindt Kamermeerderheid\" ['From the river to the sea' slogan is a call for violence, according to the majority in the House of Representatives]. nos.nl (in Dutch). 25 October 2023. Archived from the original on 31 October 2023 . Retrieved 2 November 2023 . ^ Eichner, Itamar (25 October 2023). \"Austria's Nehammer says pro-Hamas chants will become criminal offense\" . Ynetnews . Archived from the original on 10 January 2025 . Retrieved 26 October 2023 . ^ Perkins, Tom (19 March 2026). \"Efforts to shut down pro-Palestinian speech face series of setbacks in court\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2026 . ^ Bronner, Ethan (14 August 2005). \"Why 'Greater Israel' Never Came to Be\" . The New York Times . ISSN 1553-8095 . ProQuest 2227308924 . (Citing David Kimche .) ^ Eizenstat, Stuart E. (2018). \"The Clash of Peace and Politics\" . President Carter: The White House Years . New York: Thomas Dunne Books . ISBN 978-1-250-10457-1 – via Google Books. [Ze'ev] Jabotinsky's goal, and that of his young follower Menachem Begin, was fulfilling what they believed was the historic Jewish homeland in the Bible from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River, and even beyond. ^ Cite error: The named reference Laquer2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference JVLLikud was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Gdnwhatmean was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ111 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Beaumont, Peter (18 January 2024). \"Netanyahu tells US he opposes creation of Palestinian state after Gaza war\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 February 2025 .",
   "lead_after": "Political phrase related to the Palestine region This article is about the phrase. For the territory historically comprised between the Jordan and the Mediterranean, see Palestine (region) . \"Free Palestine\" redirects here. For the Palestinian Syrian organized movement, see Free Palestine Movement . For the European political alliance, see Free Palestine Party . The region of Palestine , from the Jordan River in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west \" From the river to the sea \" ( Arabic : من النهر إلى البحر , romanized : min an-nahr ʾilā l-baḥr ; Palestinian Arabic : من المياه للمياه , romanized: min il-ṃayye la-l-ṃayye , lit. ' from the water to the water ' ) is a political slogan that refers to the area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea – an area historically known as Palestine , which was formerly ruled by the British as Mandatory Palestine , and which today encompasses Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . The phrase and its variations have been used both by Palestinians and Israelis to mean that the area should consist of one state , rather than two or three . In the 1960s, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) used it to call for what they saw as a \" decolonized \" state encompassing the entirety of Mandatory Palestine . By 1969, after several revisions, the PLO used the phrase to call for a one-state solution, that would mean \"one democratic secular state that would supersede the ethno-religious state of Israel\". Many pro-Palestinian activists describe the phrase as a call for peace, equality and an end to Israeli military rule over Palestinians, while many Jewish groups and others interpret it as a call for the destruction of Israel . Frequently, at pro-Palestine protests around the world, it has been used as a chant or rallying cry. Hamas used the phrase in its 2017 charter ; usage of the phrase by such Palestinian militant groups has led critics to say that it advocates for the dismantling of Israel, and the removal or extermination of its Jewish population. Some countries have considered criminalizing its use as an antisemitic call for violence. In other cases, courts and authorities have found that the phrase can fall within protected freedom of expression , depending on context, intent, and how it is used. An early Zionist slogan envisaged statehood extending over the two banks of the Jordan river, and when that vision proved impractical, it was substituted by the idea of a Greater Israel , an entity conceived as extending from the Jordan to the sea. The phrase has also been used by Israeli politicians. The 1977 election manifesto of the right-wing Israeli Likud party said: \"Between the sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty.\" Similar wording, such as referring to the area \"west of the Jordan river\", has also been used in the 2020s by other Israeli politicians, including Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu on 18 January 2024. ^ Salama Ghamry, Heba (3 November 2023). \" \"فلسطين من النهر إلى البحر\".. ماذا يعني الشعار ومن أين جاء؟\" [\"Palestine from the river to the sea\"... What does the slogan mean and where did it come from?]. Icona – Al-Masry Al-Youm (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 1 October 2024. ^ \"الاحتلال يقمع وقفة منددة بوعد بلفور بالقدس\" [The occupation suppresses a protest denouncing the Balfour Declaration in Jerusalem.]. Arab48 (in Arabic). 2 November 2017. Archived from the original on 16 November 2023 . Retrieved 13 November 2023 . ^ Sales, Ben (8 November 2023). \" 'From the river to the sea': The slogan that led to Rashida Tlaib's censure, explained\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 1 February 2025 . Retrieved 12 December 2023 . ^ \"The culture war over the Gaza war\" . The Economist . 28 October 2023. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023 . Retrieved 29 October 2023 . ^ Stripling, Jack (31 December 2023). \"Colleges braced for antisemitism and violence. It's happening\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 8 March 2024 . Retrieved 1 November 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Kelley-2019 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kelley (2019) : \"The Likud Party's founding charter reinforces this vision in its statement that 'between the Sea and the Jordan there will only be Israeli sovereignty.' [...] During the mid-1960s, the PLO embraced the slogan, but it meant something altogether different from the Zionist vision of Jewish colonization. Instead, the 1964 and 1968 charters of the Palestine National Council (PNC) demanded 'the recovery of the usurped homeland in its entirety' and the restoration of land and rights-including the right of self-determination-to the indigenous population. In other words, the PNC was calling for decolonization, but this did not mean the elimination or exclusion of all Jews from a Palestinian nation-only the settlers or colonists. According to the 1964 Charter, 'Jews who are of Palestinian origin shall be considered Palestinians if they are willing to live peacefully and loyally in Palestine.' Following the 1967 war, the Arab National Movement, led by Dr. George Habash, merged with Youth for Revenge and the Palestine Liberation Front to form the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). The PFLP embraced a Palestinian identity rooted in radical, Third World-oriented nationalism, officially identifying as Marxist–Leninist two years later. It envisioned a single, democratic, potentially socialist Palestinian state in which all peoples would enjoy citizenship. Likewise, Fatah leaders shifted from promoting the expulsion of settlers to embracing all Jews as citizens in a secular, democratic state. As one Fatah leader explained in early 1969, 'If we are fighting a Jewish state of a racial kind, which had driven the Arabs out of their lands, it is not so as to replace it with an Arab state which would in turn drive out the Jews [...] We are ready to look at anything with all our negotiating partners once our right to live in our homeland is recognized.' Thus by 1969, 'Free Palestine from the river to the sea' came to mean one democratic secular state that would supersede the ethno-religious state of Israel. Moreover, the Palestinian national movement had come to see itself as part of a global anti-imperialist movement in solidarity with other nonaligned or socialist nations, or revolutionary movements like the Black Panthers.\" ^ Kellman, Laurie (10 November 2023). \" 'From the river to the sea': Why these 6 words spark fury and passion over the Israel-Hamas war\" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 12 November 2023 . Retrieved 26 May 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \" 'From the river to the sea': Why a chant for the freedom of an occupied people became so provocative\" . Dawn.com . 28 October 2023 . Retrieved 31 October 2023 . ^ \" 'From the river to the sea'-leus is geweldsoproep, vindt Kamermeerderheid\" ['From the river to the sea' slogan is a call for violence, according to the majority in the House of Representatives]. nos.nl (in Dutch). 25 October 2023. Archived from the original on 31 October 2023 . Retrieved 2 November 2023 . ^ Eichner, Itamar (25 October 2023). \"Austria's Nehammer says pro-Hamas chants will become criminal offense\" . Ynetnews . Archived from the original on 10 January 2025 . Retrieved 26 October 2023 . ^ Perkins, Tom (19 March 2026). \"Efforts to shut down pro-Palestinian speech face series of setbacks in court\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 April 2026 . ^ Bronner, Ethan (14 August 2005). \"Why 'Greater Israel' Never Came to Be\" . The New York Times . ISSN 1553-8095 . ProQuest 2227308924 . (Citing David Kimche .) ^ Eizenstat, Stuart E. (2018). \"The Clash of Peace and Politics\" . President Carter: The White House Years . New York: Thomas Dunne Books . ISBN 978-1-250-10457-1 – via Google Books. [Ze'ev] Jabotinsky's goal, and that of his young follower Menachem Begin, was fulfilling what they believed was the historic Jewish homeland in the Bible from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River, and even beyond. ^ Cite error: The named reference Laquer2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference JVLLikud was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Gdnwhatmean was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ111 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Beaumont, Peter (18 January 2024). \"Netanyahu tells US he opposes creation of Palestinian state after Gaza war\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 7 February 2025 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine",
   "pageid": 304601,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-27T20:58:12Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine&oldid=1360850888",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine&oldid=1366405711",
   "lead_before": "Popular uprising by Palestinian Arabs Belligerents United Kingdom British Army Palestine Police Force Jewish Settlement Police Jewish Supernumerary Police Special Night Squads NDF (from 1937) Arab \"peace bands\" Jewish National Council Haganah Fosh Peulot Meyuhadot Irgun Arab Higher Committee (1936–October 1937) Local rebel factions ( fasa'il ) Volunteers from Arab world Central Committee of National Jihad in Palestine (October 1937 – 1939) Bureau of the Arab Revolt in Palestine (late 1938 – 1939) Society for the Defense of Palestine Commanders and leaders General Arthur Grenfell Wauchope High Commissioner and Commander-in-chief (1932–1938) Sir Harold MacMichael , High Commissioner (1938–1944) Lt.-General John Dill , GOC (1936–1937) Lt.-General Archibald Wavell , GOC (1937–1938) Lt.-General Robert Haining , GOC (1938–1939) Major-General Bernard Montgomery ; Commander, 8th Infantry Div. (1938–1939) Air Commodore Roderic Hill ; AOC , Palestine and Transjordan (1936–1938) Air Commodore Arthur Harris ; AOC, Palestine and Transjordan (1938–1939) Admiral Dudley Pound ; Commander-in-Chief, British Mediterranean Fleet (1936–1939) Political leadership: Raghib al-Nashashibi (from 1937) Eliyahu Golomb Ze'ev Jabotinsky Political leadership: Mohammed Amin al-Husayni (exiled) Raghib al-Nashashibi (defected) Izzat Darwaza (exiled) Local rebel commanders : Abd al-Rahim al-Hajj Muhammad (General Commander) † Arif Abd al-Raziq Regional Commander (exiled) Abu Ibrahim al-Kabir (Regional Commander) Yusuf Abu Durra (Regional Commander) Fakhri 'Abd al-Hadi (defected) Abdallah al-Asbah † Issa Battat † Mohammed Saleh al-Hamad † Yusuf Hamdan † Ahmad Mohamad Hasan † Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni (exiled) Wasif Kamal Abdul Khallik † Hamid Suleiman Mardawi † Ibrahim Nassar Mustafa Osta † Mohammad Mahmoud Rana'an Farhan al-Sa'di Hasan Salama Arab volunteer commanders : Fawzi al-Qawuqji (expelled) Sa'id al-'As † Muhammad al-Ashmar Strength 25,000 –50,000 British soldiers 20,000 Jewish policemen, supernumeraries and settlement guards 15,000 Haganah fighters 2,883 Palestine Police Force officers (1936) 2,000 Irgun militants 1,000–3,000 (1936–37) 2,500–7,500 (plus an additional 6,000–15,000 part-timers) (1938) Casualties and losses British Security Forces : 262 killed c. 550 wounded Jews : c. 500 killed 2 executed Arabs : c. 5,000 killed c. 15,000 wounded 108 executed 12,622 detained 5 exiled A popular uprising by Palestinian Arabs in Mandatory Palestine against the British administration, known as the Great Revolt , and later the Great Palestinian Revolt or the Palestinian Revolution , lasted from 1936 until 1939. The movement sought independence from British colonial rule and the end of British support for Zionism , including Jewish immigration and land sales to Jews. The uprising occurred during a peak in the influx of European Jewish immigrants, and with the growing plight of the rural fellahin rendered landless, who as they moved to metropolitan centres to escape their abject poverty found themselves socially marginalized. Since the Battle of Tel Hai in 1920, Jews and Arabs had been involved in a cycle of attacks and counter-attacks, and the immediate spark for the uprising was the murder of two Jews by a Qassamite band , and the retaliatory killing by Jewish gunmen of two Arab labourers, incidents which triggered a flare-up of violence across Palestine. A month into the disturbances, Amin al-Husseini , president of the Arab Higher Committee and Mufti of Jerusalem , declared 16 May 1936 as \"Palestine Day\" and called for a general strike . David Ben-Gurion , leader of the Yishuv , described Arab causes as fear of growing Jewish economic power, opposition to mass Jewish immigration and fear of the British identification with Zionism . The general strike lasted from April to October 1936. The revolt is often analysed in terms of two distinct phases. The first phase began as spontaneous popular resistance, which was seized on by the urban bourgeois Arab Higher Committee, giving the movement an organized shape that was focused mainly on strikes and other forms of political protest, in order to secure a political result. By October 1936, this phase had been defeated by the British civil administration using a combination of political concessions , international diplomacy (involving the rulers of Iraq , Saudi Arabia , Transjordan and Yemen ) and the threat of martial law . The second phase, which began late in 1937, was a peasant-led resistance movement provoked by British repression in 1936 in which increasingly British forces were targeted as the army itself increasingly targeted the villages it thought supportive of the revolt. During this phase, the rebellion was brutally suppressed by the British Army and the Palestine Police Force using repressive measures that were intended to intimidate the whole population and undermine popular support for the revolt. A more dominant role on the Arab side was taken by the Nashashibi clan , whose NDP party quickly withdrew from the rebel Arab Higher Committee , led by the radical faction of Amin al-Husseini, and instead sided with the British – dispatching \"Fasail al-Salam\" (the \"Peace Bands\") in coordination with the British Army against nationalist and Jihadist Arab \"Fasail\" units (literally \"bands\"). According to official British figures covering the whole revolt, the army and police killed more than 2,000 Arabs in combat, 108 were hanged , and 961 died because of what they described as \"gang and terrorist activities\". In an analysis of the British statistics, Walid Khalidi estimates 19,792 casualties for the Arabs, with 5,032 dead: 3,832 killed by the British and 1,200 dead due to intracommunal terrorism, and 14,760 wounded. By one estimate, ten percent of the adult male Palestinian Arab population between 20 and 60 was killed, wounded, imprisoned or exiled. Estimates of the number of Palestinian Jews killed are up to several hundred. The Arab revolt in Mandatory Palestine was unsuccessful, and its consequences affected the outcome of the 1948 Palestine war . It caused the British Mandate to give crucial support to pre-state Zionist militias like the Haganah , whereas on the Palestinian Arab side, the revolt forced the main Palestinian Arab leader of the period, al-Husseini, into exile. ^ Hughes 2009a . ^ Black 2006 , p. 128. ^ Swedenburg 2003 , p. 220. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003 , p. 103. ^ Millman 1998 , p. 22. ^ Bowyer Bell 1996 , p. 44. ^ Morris 1999 , p. 145. ^ Levenberg 1993 , pp. 74–76. ^ A Survey of Palestine (PDF) . Jerusalem: Government of Palestine. 1946. pp. 38– 49. ^ Hughes 2019 , p. 1. ^ Kabahā 2014 , p. 9. ^ Kelly 2017 , p. 2. ^ Sanagan 2013 , p. 333. ^ Yazbak 2000 , pp. 93–113. ^ Sanagan 2013 , p. 338. ^ Hughes 2019 , pp. 1–3. ^ Morris 1999 , p. 136. ^ Kelly 2015 , p. 28. ^ Norris 2008 , pp. 25, 27, 37, 45. ^ Laurens 2002 , p. 306. ^ Hughes 2009a , p. 313. ^ Norris 2008 , p. 27. ^ Kelly 2017 , p. 5. ^ Norris 2008 , pp. 25, 33. ^ Norris 2008 , p. 39. ^ Hughes 2019 , p. 377. ^ Hughes 2019 , p. 381. ^ Khalidi 2001 , pp. 21, 35. ^ Morris 1999 , p. 160. ^ Morris 1999 , p. 159. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Popular uprising by Palestinian Arabs Belligerents United Kingdom British Armed Forces Special Night Squads Mandatory Palestine Palestine Police Force Jewish Settlement Police Jewish Supernumerary Police NDF (from 1937) Arab \"peace bands\" Jewish National Council Haganah Posh Peulot Meyuhadot Irgun Arab Higher Committee (1936–October 1937) Local rebel factions ( fasa'il ) Volunteers from Arab world Central Committee of National Jihad in Palestine (October 1937 – 1939) Bureau of the Arab Revolt in Palestine (late 1938 – 1939) Society for the Defense of Palestine Commanders and leaders General Arthur Grenfell Wauchope High Commissioner and Commander-in-chief (1932–1938) Sir Harold MacMichael , High Commissioner (1938–1944) Lt.-General John Dill , GOC (1936–1937) Lt.-General Archibald Wavell , GOC (1937–1938) Lt.-General Robert Haining , GOC (1938–1939) Major-General Bernard Montgomery ; Commander, 8th Infantry Div. (1938–1939) Air Commodore Roderic Hill ; AOC , Palestine and Transjordan (1936–1938) Air Commodore Arthur Harris ; AOC, Palestine and Transjordan (1938–1939) Admiral Dudley Pound ; Commander-in-Chief, British Mediterranean Fleet (1936–1939) Political leadership: Raghib al-Nashashibi (from 1937) Eliyahu Golomb Ze'ev Jabotinsky Political leadership: Mohammed Amin al-Husayni (exiled) Raghib al-Nashashibi (defected) Izzat Darwaza (exiled) Local rebel commanders : Abd al-Rahim al-Hajj Muhammad (General Commander) † Arif Abd al-Raziq Regional Commander (exiled) Abu Ibrahim al-Kabir (Regional Commander) Yusuf Abu Durra (Regional Commander) Fakhri 'Abd al-Hadi (defected) Abdallah al-Asbah † Issa Battat † Mohammed Saleh al-Hamad † Yusuf Hamdan † Ahmad Mohamad Hasan † Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni (exiled) Wasif Kamal Abdul Khallik † Hamid Suleiman Mardawi † Ibrahim Nassar Mustafa Osta † Mohammad Mahmoud Rana'an Farhan al-Sa'di Hasan Salama Arab volunteer commanders : Fawzi al-Qawuqji (expelled) Sa'id al-'As † Muhammad al-Ashmar Strength 25,000 –50,000 British soldiers 20,000 Jewish policemen, supernumeraries and settlement guards 15,000 Haganah fighters 2,883 Palestine Police Force officers (1936) 2,000 Irgun militants 1,000–3,000 (1936–37) 2,500–7,500 (plus an additional 6,000–15,000 part-timers) (1938) Casualties and losses British Security Forces : 262 killed c. 550 wounded Jews : c. 500 killed 2 executed Arabs : c. 5,000 killed c. 15,000 wounded 108 executed 12,622 detained 5 exiled A popular uprising by Palestinian Arabs in Mandatory Palestine against the British administration, known as the Great Revolt , and later the Great Palestinian Revolt or the Palestinian Revolution , lasted from 1936 until 1939. The movement sought independence from British colonial rule and the end of British support for Zionism , including Jewish immigration and land sales to Jews. The uprising occurred during a peak in the influx of European Jewish immigrants, and with the growing plight of the rural fellahin rendered landless, who as they moved to metropolitan centres to escape their abject poverty found themselves socially marginalized. Since the Battle of Tel Hai in 1920, Jews and Arabs had been involved in a cycle of attacks and counter-attacks, and the immediate spark for the uprising was the murder of two Jews by a Qassamite band , and the retaliatory killing by Jewish gunmen of two Arab labourers, incidents which triggered a flare-up of violence across Palestine. A month into the disturbances, Amin al-Husseini , president of the Arab Higher Committee and Mufti of Jerusalem , declared 16 May 1936 as \"Palestine Day\" and called for a general strike . David Ben-Gurion , leader of the Yishuv , described Arab causes as fear of growing Jewish economic power, opposition to mass Jewish immigration and fear of the British identification with Zionism . The general strike lasted from April to October 1936. The revolt is often analysed in terms of two distinct phases. The first phase began as spontaneous popular resistance, which was seized on by the urban bourgeois Arab Higher Committee, giving the movement an organized shape that was focused mainly on strikes and other forms of political protest, in order to secure a political result. By October 1936, this phase had been defeated by the British civil administration using a combination of political concessions , international diplomacy (involving the rulers of Iraq , Saudi Arabia , Transjordan and Yemen ) and the threat of martial law . The second phase, which began late in 1937, was a peasant-led resistance movement provoked by British repression in 1936 in which increasingly British forces were targeted as the army itself increasingly targeted the villages it thought supportive of the revolt. During this phase, the rebellion was brutally suppressed by the British Army and the Palestine Police Force using repressive measures that were intended to intimidate the whole population and undermine popular support for the revolt. A more dominant role on the Arab side was taken by the Nashashibi clan , whose NDP party quickly withdrew from the rebel Arab Higher Committee , led by the radical faction of Amin al-Husseini, and instead sided with the British – dispatching \"Fasail al-Salam\" (the \"Peace Bands\") in coordination with the British Army against nationalist and Jihadist Arab \"Fasail\" units (literally \"bands\"). According to official British figures covering the whole revolt, the army and police killed more than 2,000 Arabs in combat, 108 were hanged , and 961 died because of what they described as \"gang and terrorist activities\". In an analysis of the British statistics, Walid Khalidi estimates 19,792 casualties for the Arabs, with 5,032 dead: 3,832 killed by the British and 1,200 dead due to intracommunal terrorism, and 14,760 wounded. By one estimate, ten percent of the adult male Palestinian Arab population between 20 and 60 was killed, wounded, imprisoned or exiled. Estimates of the number of Palestinian Jews killed are up to several hundred. The Arab revolt in Mandatory Palestine was unsuccessful, and its consequences affected the outcome of the 1948 Palestine war . It caused the British Mandate to give crucial support to pre-state Zionist militias like the Haganah , whereas on the Palestinian Arab side, the revolt forced the main Palestinian Arab leader of the period, al-Husseini, into exile. ^ Hughes 2009a . ^ Black 2006 , p. 128. ^ Swedenburg 2003 , p. 220. ^ Kimmerling & Migdal 2003 , p. 103. ^ Millman 1998 , p. 22. ^ Bowyer Bell 1996 , p. 44. ^ Morris 1999 , p. 145. ^ Levenberg 1993 , pp. 74–76. ^ A Survey of Palestine (PDF) . Jerusalem: Government of Palestine. 1946. pp. 38– 49. ^ Hughes 2019 , p. 1. ^ Kabahā 2014 , p. 9. ^ Kelly 2017 , p. 2. ^ Sanagan 2013 , p. 333. ^ Yazbak 2000 , pp. 93–113. ^ Sanagan 2013 , p. 338. ^ Hughes 2019 , pp. 1–3. ^ Morris 1999 , p. 136. ^ Kelly 2015 , p. 28. ^ Norris 2008 , pp. 25, 27, 37, 45. ^ Laurens 2002 , p. 306. ^ Hughes 2009a , p. 313. ^ Norris 2008 , p. 27. ^ Kelly 2017 , p. 5. ^ Norris 2008 , pp. 25, 33. ^ Norris 2008 , p. 39. ^ Hughes 2019 , p. 377. ^ Hughes 2019 , p. 381. ^ Khalidi 2001 , pp. 21, 35. ^ Morris 1999 , p. 160. ^ Morris 1999 , p. 159. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Zionism as settler colonialism",
   "pageid": 70418136,
   "revid_before": 1360601833,
   "revid_after": 1364274488,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-15T16:06:15Z",
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zionism_as_settler_colonialism&oldid=1364274488",
   "lead_before": "For Israeli settlements in Israeli-occupied territories, see Israeli settlement . New York Times articles in 1899 and 1912 describing Zionism in terms of settlement and colonization. Zionism has been described by several scholars as a form of settler colonialism in relation to the region of Palestine and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Zionism's founders and early leaders were aware and outspoken about their status as colonizers; early leading Zionists such as Theodor Herzl , Max Nordau , and Ze'ev Jabotinsky described Zionism as colonization . As the theoretical framework of settler colonialism emerged in the 1960s during the decolonization of Africa and Asia , it was applied by some scholars to the Zionist colonization of Palestine. This perspective contends that Zionism involves processes of displacement and dispossession of Palestinian Arabs , akin to other settler colonial contexts similar to the creation of the United States . Critics of the characterization of Zionism as settler colonialism argue that it does not fit traditional colonial frameworks, seeing Zionism instead as the repatriation of an indigenous population and an act of self-determination . This debate reflects broader tensions over competing historical and political narratives regarding indigeneity in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the founding and legitimacy of the State of Israel .",
   "lead_after": "For Israeli settlements in Israeli-occupied territories, see Israeli settlement . New York Times articles in 1899 and 1912 describing Zionism in terms of settlement and colonization. Zionism has been described by several scholars as a form of settler colonialism in relation to the region of Palestine and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Zionism's founders and early leaders were aware and outspoken about their status as colonizers; early leading Zionists such as Theodor Herzl , Max Nordau , and Ze'ev Jabotinsky described Zionism as colonization . As the theoretical framework of settler colonialism emerged in the 1960s during the decolonization of Africa and Asia , it was applied by some scholars to the Zionist colonization of Palestine. This perspective contends that Zionism involves processes of displacement and dispossession of Palestinian Arabs , akin to other settler colonial contexts similar to the creation of the United States . Critics of the characterization of Zionism as settler colonialism argue that it does not fit traditional colonial frameworks, seeing Zionism instead as the repatriation of an indigenous population and an act of self-determination . This debate reflects broader tensions over competing historical and political narratives regarding indigeneity in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the founding and legitimacy of the State of Israel ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Al-Aqsa",
   "pageid": 70963492,
   "revid_before": 1361302749,
   "revid_after": 1365983443,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-25T15:31:35Z",
   "lead_changed": true,
   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Aqsa&oldid=1361302749",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Aqsa&oldid=1365983443",
   "lead_before": "Islamic religious complex atop the Temple Mount in Jerusalem For the congregational mosque and prayer hall at Al-Aqsa, see Al-Aqsa Mosque . For other uses, see Al-Aqsa (disambiguation) . \"Aksa\" redirects here. For other uses, see Aksa (disambiguation) . Al-Aqsa ( / æ l ˈ æ k s ə / ; Arabic : الأَقْصَى , romanized : Al-Aqṣā ) or al-Masjid al-Aqṣā ( Arabic : المسجد الأقصى ) is the compound of Islamic religious buildings that sit atop the Temple Mount , also known as the Haram al-Sharif , in the Old City of Jerusalem , including the Dome of the Rock , many mosques and prayer halls, madrasas , zawiyas , khalwas and other domes and religious structures, as well as the four encircling minarets . It is considered the third holiest site in Islam . The compound's main congregational mosque or prayer hall is variously known as Al-Aqsa Mosque , Qibli Mosque or al-Jāmiʿ al-Aqṣā , while in some sources it is also known as al-Masjid al-Aqṣā ; the wider compound is sometimes known as Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in order to avoid confusion. During the rule of the Rashidun caliph Umar ( r. 634–644 ), a small prayer house on the compound was erected near the mosque's site. The present-day mosque, located on the south wall of the compound, was originally built by the fifth Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ( r. 685–705 ) or his successor al-Walid I ( r. 705–715 ) (or both) as a congregational mosque on the same axis as the Dome of the Rock , a commemorative Islamic monument. After being destroyed in an earthquake in 746, the mosque was rebuilt in 758 by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur ( r. 754–775 ). It was further expanded upon in 780 by the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi ( r. 775–785 ), after which it consisted of fifteen aisles and a central dome. However, it was again destroyed during the 1033 Jordan Rift Valley earthquake . The mosque was rebuilt by the Fatimid caliph al-Zahir ( r. 1021–1036 ), who reduced it to seven aisles but adorned its interior with an elaborate central archway covered in vegetal mosaics; the current structure preserves the 11th-century outline. During the periodic renovations undertaken, the ruling Islamic dynasties constructed additions to the mosque and its precincts, such as its dome, façade, minarets , and minbar and interior structure. Upon its capture by the Crusaders in 1099, the mosque was used as a palace; it was also the headquarters of the religious order of the Knights Templar . After the area was conquered by Saladin ( r. 1174–1193 ) in 1187, the structure's function as a mosque was restored. More renovations, repairs, and expansion projects were undertaken in later centuries by the Ayyubids , the Mamluks , the Ottomans , the Supreme Muslim Council of British Palestine , and during the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank . Since the beginning of the ongoing Israeli occupation of the West Bank , the mosque has remained under the independent administration of the Jerusalem Waqf . Al-Aqsa holds high geopolitical significance due to its location atop the Temple Mount , once home to two Israelite and Jewish Temples , and sits amid major historical and holy sites in Judaism , Christianity and Islam . As such it has been a primary flashpoint in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . ^ Al-Ratrout, H. A., The Architectural Development of Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Early Islamic Period , ALMI Press, London, 2004. ^ Williams, George (1849). The Holy City: Historical, Topographical and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem . Parker. pp. 143– 160. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 22 June 2022 . The following detailed account of the Haram es-Sherif, with some interesting notices of the City, is extracted from an Arabic work entitled \" The Sublime Companion to the History of Jerusalem and Hebron, by Kadi Mejir-ed-din, Ebil-yemen Abd-er-Rahman, El-Alemi ,\" who died A. H. 927, (A. d. 1521)… \"I have at the commencement called attention to the fact that the place now called by the name Aksa (i. e. the most distant), is the Mosk [Jamia] properly so called, at the southern extremity of the area, where is the Minbar and the great Mihrab. But in fact Aksa is the name of the whole area enclosed within the walls, the dimensions of which I have just given, for the Mosk proper [Jamia], the Dome of the Rock, the Cloisters, and other buildings, are all of late construction, and Mesjid el-Aksa is the correct name of the whole area.\" and also von Hammer-Purgstall, J.F. (1811). \"Chapitre vingtième. Description de la mosquée Mesdjid-ol-aksa, telle qu'elle est de nos jours, (du temps de l'auteur, au dixième siècle de l'Hégire, au seizième après J. C.)\" . Fundgruben des Orients (in French). Vol. 2. Gedruckt bey A. Schmid. p. 93. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 22 June 2022 . Nous avons dès le commencement appelé l'attention sur que l'endroit, auquel les hommes donnent aujourd'hui le nom d'Aksa, c'est à-dire, la plus éloignée, est la mosquée proprement dite, bâtie à l'extrêmité méridionale de l'enceinte où se trouve la chaire et le grand autel. Mais en effet Aksa est le nom de l'enceinte entière, en tant qu'elle est enfermée de murs, dont nous venons de donner la longueur et la largeur, car la mosquée proprement dite, le dôme de la roche Sakhra, les portiques et les autres bâtimens, sont tous des constructions récentes, et Mesdjidol-aksa est le véritable nom de toute l'enceinte. (Le Mesdjid des arabes répond à l'ίερόν et le Djami au ναός des grecs.) ^ Tucker, S.C.; Roberts, P. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO history reference online. ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 19 June 2022 . Al-Aqsa Mosque The al-Aqsa Mosque (literally, \"farthest mosque\") is both a building and a complex of religious buildings in Jerusalem. It is known to Muslims as al-Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) and to Jews and Christians as the Har ha-Bayit or Temple Mount. The whole area of the Noble Sanctuary is considered by Muslims to be the al-Aqsa Mosque, and the entire precinct is inviolable according to Islamic law. It is considered specifically part of the waqf (endowment) land that had included the Western Wall (Wailing Wall), property of an Algerian family, and more generally a waqf of all of Islam. When viewed as a complex of buildings, the al-Aqsa Mosque is dominated and bounded by two major structures: the al-Aqsa Mosque building on the east and the Dome of the Rock (or the Mosque of Omar) on the west. The Dome of the Rock is the oldest holy building in Islam. \"Jerusalem holy site clashes fuel fears of return to war\" . BBC News . 2022-04-22. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022 . Retrieved 30 May 2022 . Whole site also considered by Muslims as Al Aqsa Mosque UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2022-04-04). \"39 COM 7A.27 - Decision\" . UNESCO World Heritage Centre . Archived from the original on 30 May 2022 . Retrieved 2022-05-29 . …the historic Gates and windows of the Qibli Mosque inside Al-Aqsa Mosque/ Al-Haram Al-Sharif, which is a Muslim holy site of worship and an integral part of a World Heritage Site The Survey of Western Palestine , Jerusalem , 1884, p.119: \"The Jamia el Aksa, or 'distant mosque' (that is, distant from Mecca), is on the south, reaching to the outer wall. The whole enclosure of the Haram is called by Moslem writers Masjid el Aksa, 'praying-place of the Aksa,' from this mosque.\" Yitzhak Reiter : \"This article deals with the employment of religious symbols for national identities and national narratives by using the sacred compound in Jerusalem (The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa) as a case study. The narrative of The Holy Land involves three concentric circles, each encompassing the other, with each side having its own names for each circle. These are: Palestine/Eretz Israel (i.e., the Land of Israel); Jerusalem/al-Quds and finally The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa compound...Within the struggle over public awareness of Jerusalem's importance, one particular site is at the eye of the storm—the Temple Mount and its Western Wall—the Jewish Kotel—or, in Muslim terminology, the al-Aqsa compound (alternatively: al-Haram al-Sharif) including the al-Buraq Wall... \"Al-Aqsa\" for the Palestinian-Arab-Muslim side is not merely a mosque mentioned in the Quran within the context of the Prophet Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey to al-Aqsa which, according to tradition, concluded with his ascension to heaven (and prayer with all of the prophets and the Jewish and Christian religious figures who preceded him); rather, it also constitutes a unique symbol of identity, one around which various political objectives may be formulated, plans of action drawn up and masses mobilized for their realization\", \"Narratives of Jerusalem and its Sacred Compound\" Archived 21 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine , Israel Studies 18(2):115-132 (July 2013) Annika Björkdahl and Susanne Buckley-Zistel: \"The site is known in Arabic as Haram al-Sharif – the Noble Sanctuary – and colloquially as the Haram or the al-Aqsa compound; while in Hebrew, it is called Har HaBeit – the Temple Mount.\" Annika Björkdahl; Susanne Buckley-Zistel (1 May 2016). Spatialising Peace and Conflict: Mapping the Production of Places, Sites and Scales of Violence . Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 243–. ISBN 978-1-137-55048-4 . Archived from the original on 21 May 2022 . Retrieved 21 May 2022 . Mahdi Abdul Hadi :\"Al-Aqsa Mosque, also referred to as Al-Haram Ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary), comprises the entire area within the compound walls (a total area of 144,000 m2) - including all the mosques, prayer rooms, buildings, platforms and open courtyards located above or under the grounds - and exceeds 200 historical monuments pertaining to various Islamic eras. According to Islamic creed and jurisprudence, all these buildings and courtyards enjoy the same degree of sacredness since they are built on Al-Aqsa's holy grounds. This sacredness is not exclusive to the physical structures allocated for prayer, like the Dome of the Rock or Al-Qibly Mosque (the mosque with the large silver dome)\" Mahdi Abdul Hadi Archived 2020-02-16 at the Wayback Machine Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs ; Tim Marshall: \"Many people believe that the mosque depicted is called the Al-Aqsa; however, a visit to one of Palestine's most eminent intellectuals, Mahdi F. Abdul Hadi, clarified the issue. Hadi is chairman of the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, based in East Jerusalem. His offices are a treasure trove of old photographs, documents, and symbols. He was kind enough to spend several hours with me. He spread out maps of Jerusalem's Old City on a huge desk and homed in on the Al-Aqsa compound, which sits above the Western Wall. \"The mosque in the Al-Aqsa [Brigades] flag is the Dome of the Rock. Everyone takes it for granted that it is the Al-Aqsa mosque, but no, the whole compound is Al-Aqsa, and on it are two mosques, the Qibla mosque and the Dome of the Rock, and on the flags of both Al-Aqsa Brigades and the Qassam Brigades, it is the Dome of the Rock shown,\" he said. Tim Marshall (4 July 2017). A Flag Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of National Symbols . Simon and Schuster. pp. 151–. ISBN 978-1-5011-6833-8 . Archived from the original on 12 September 2019 . Retrieved 17 April 2018 . * Hughes, Aaron W. (2014). Theorizing Islam: Disciplinary Deconstruction and Reconstruction . Religion in Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-317-54594-1 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 24 June 2022 . Although later commentators would debate whether or not this journey was a physical one or took place at an internal level, it would come to play a crucial role in establishing Muhammad's prophetic credentials. In the first part of this journey, referred to as the isra, he traveled from the Kaba in Mecca to \"the farthest mosque\" (al-masjid al-aqsa), identified with the Temple Mount in Jerusalem: the al-Aqsa mosque that stands there today eventually took its name from this larger precinct, in which it was constructed. * Sway, Mustafa A. (2015), \"Al-Aqsa Mosque: Do Not Intrude!\" , Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture , 20/21 (4): 108– 113, ProQuest 1724483297 , archived from the original on 19 July 2023 , retrieved 28 July 2022 , Ahmed ibn Hanbal (780–855): \"Verily, 'Al-Aqsa' is a name for the whole mosque which is surrounded by the wall, the length and width of which are mentioned here, for the building that exists in the southern part of the Mosque, and the other ones such as the Dome of the Rock and the corridors and other [buildings] are novel (muhdatha).\" Mustafa Sway: More than 500 years ago, when Mujir Al-Din Al-Hanbali offered the above definition of Al-Aqsa Mosque in the year 900 AH/1495, there were no conflicts, no occupation and no contesting narratives surrounding the site. * Omar, Abdallah Marouf (2017). \"Al-Aqsa Mosque's Incident in July 2017: Affirming the Policy of Deterrence\" . Insight Turkey . 19 (3): 69– 82. doi : 10.25253/99.2017193.05 . hdl : 20.500.12723/2121 . JSTOR 26300531 . In a treaty signed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on March 31, 2013, both sides define al-Aqsa Mosque as being \"al-Masjid al-Aqsa with its 144 dunums, which include the Qibli Mosque of al-Aqsa, the Mosque of the Dome of the Rock, and all its mosques, buildings, walls, courtyards\". ... Israel insists on identifying al-Aqsa Mosque as being a small building. ... Nonetheless, the Executive Board of UNESCO adopted the Jordanian definition of al-Aqsa Mosque in its Resolution (199 EX/PX/DR.19.1 Rev). * Occupied Palestine: draft decision (199 EX/PX/DR.19.1 REV), UNESCO Executive Board . UNESCO. 2016. ^ Goshen-Gottstein, Alon (2018-08-08). Memory and Hope: Forgiveness, Healing, and Interfaith Relations . Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-5326-5923-2 . ^ The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest Archived 15 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine , Cambridge University Press, Jodi Magness, page 355",
   "lead_after": "Islamic religious complex atop the Temple Mount in Jerusalem For the congregational mosque and prayer hall at Al-Aqsa, see Al-Aqsa Mosque . For other uses, see Al-Aqsa (disambiguation) . \"Aksa\" redirects here. For other uses, see Aksa (disambiguation) . Al-Aqsa ( / æ l ˈ æ k s ə / ; Arabic : المسجد الأقصى , romanized : al-Masjid al-Aqṣā ) is the compound of Islamic religious buildings that sit atop the Temple Mount , also known as the Haram al-Sharif , in the Old City of Jerusalem , including the Dome of the Rock , many mosques and prayer halls, madrasas , zawiyas , khalwas and other domes and religious structures, as well as the four encircling minarets . It is considered the third holiest site in Islam . The compound's main congregational mosque or prayer hall is variously known as Al-Aqsa Mosque , Qibli Mosque or al-Jāmiʿ al-Aqṣā , while in some sources it is also known as al-Masjid al-Aqṣā ; the wider compound is sometimes known as Al-Aqsa Mosque compound in order to avoid confusion. During the rule of the Rashidun caliph Umar ( r. 634–644 ) or the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I ( r. 661–680 ), a small prayer house on the compound was erected near the mosque's site. The present-day mosque, located on the south wall of the compound, was originally built by the fifth Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ( r. 685–705 ) or his successor al-Walid I ( r. 705–715 ) (or both) as a congregational mosque on the same axis as the Dome of the Rock , a commemorative Islamic monument. After being destroyed in an earthquake in 746, the mosque was rebuilt in 758 by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur ( r. 754–775 ). It was further expanded upon in 780 by the Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi ( r. 775–785 ), after which it consisted of fifteen aisles and a central dome. However, it was again destroyed during the 1033 Jordan Rift Valley earthquake . The mosque was rebuilt by the Fatimid caliph al-Zahir ( r. 1021–1036 ), who reduced it to seven aisles but adorned its interior with an elaborate central archway covered in vegetal mosaics; the current structure preserves the 11th-century outline. During the periodic renovations undertaken, the ruling Islamic dynasties constructed additions to the mosque and its precincts, such as its dome, façade, minarets , and minbar and interior structure. Upon its capture by the Crusaders in 1099, the mosque was used as a palace; it was also the headquarters of the religious order of the Knights Templar . After the area was conquered by Saladin ( r. 1174–1193 ) in 1187, the structure's function as a mosque was restored. More renovations, repairs, and expansion projects were undertaken in later centuries by the Ayyubids , the Mamluks , the Ottomans , the Supreme Muslim Council of British Palestine , and during the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank . Since the beginning of the ongoing Israeli occupation of the West Bank , the mosque has remained under the independent administration of the Jerusalem Waqf . Al-Aqsa holds high geopolitical significance due to its location atop the Temple Mount , once home to two Israelite and Jewish Temples , and sits amid major historical and holy sites in Judaism , Christianity and Islam . As such it has been a primary flashpoint in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . ^ Al-Ratrout, H. A., The Architectural Development of Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Early Islamic Period , ALMI Press, London, 2004. ^ Williams, George (1849). The Holy City: Historical, Topographical and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem . Parker. pp. 143– 160. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 22 June 2022 . The following detailed account of the Haram es-Sherif, with some interesting notices of the City, is extracted from an Arabic work entitled \" The Sublime Companion to the History of Jerusalem and Hebron, by Kadi Mejir-ed-din, Ebil-yemen Abd-er-Rahman, El-Alemi ,\" who died A. H. 927, (A. d. 1521)… \"I have at the commencement called attention to the fact that the place now called by the name Aksa (i. e. the most distant), is the Mosk [Jamia] properly so called, at the southern extremity of the area, where is the Minbar and the great Mihrab. But in fact Aksa is the name of the whole area enclosed within the walls, the dimensions of which I have just given, for the Mosk proper [Jamia], the Dome of the Rock, the Cloisters, and other buildings, are all of late construction, and Mesjid el-Aksa is the correct name of the whole area.\" and also von Hammer-Purgstall, J.F. (1811). \"Chapitre vingtième. Description de la mosquée Mesdjid-ol-aksa, telle qu'elle est de nos jours, (du temps de l'auteur, au dixième siècle de l'Hégire, au seizième après J. C.)\" . Fundgruben des Orients (in French). Vol. 2. Gedruckt bey A. Schmid. p. 93. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 22 June 2022 . Nous avons dès le commencement appelé l'attention sur que l'endroit, auquel les hommes donnent aujourd'hui le nom d'Aksa, c'est à-dire, la plus éloignée, est la mosquée proprement dite, bâtie à l'extrêmité méridionale de l'enceinte où se trouve la chaire et le grand autel. Mais en effet Aksa est le nom de l'enceinte entière, en tant qu'elle est enfermée de murs, dont nous venons de donner la longueur et la largeur, car la mosquée proprement dite, le dôme de la roche Sakhra, les portiques et les autres bâtimens, sont tous des constructions récentes, et Mesdjidol-aksa est le véritable nom de toute l'enceinte. (Le Mesdjid des arabes répond à l'ίερόν et le Djami au ναός des grecs.) ^ Tucker, S.C.; Roberts, P. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO history reference online. ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 19 June 2022 . Al-Aqsa Mosque The al-Aqsa Mosque (literally, \"farthest mosque\") is both a building and a complex of religious buildings in Jerusalem. It is known to Muslims as al-Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) and to Jews and Christians as the Har ha-Bayit or Temple Mount. The whole area of the Noble Sanctuary is considered by Muslims to be the al-Aqsa Mosque, and the entire precinct is inviolable according to Islamic law. It is considered specifically part of the waqf (endowment) land that had included the Western Wall (Wailing Wall), property of an Algerian family, and more generally a waqf of all of Islam. When viewed as a complex of buildings, the al-Aqsa Mosque is dominated and bounded by two major structures: the al-Aqsa Mosque building on the east and the Dome of the Rock (or the Mosque of Omar) on the west. The Dome of the Rock is the oldest holy building in Islam. \"Jerusalem holy site clashes fuel fears of return to war\" . BBC News . 2022-04-22. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022 . Retrieved 30 May 2022 . Whole site also considered by Muslims as Al Aqsa Mosque UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2022-04-04). \"39 COM 7A.27 - Decision\" . UNESCO World Heritage Centre . Archived from the original on 30 May 2022 . Retrieved 2022-05-29 . …the historic Gates and windows of the Qibli Mosque inside Al-Aqsa Mosque/ Al-Haram Al-Sharif, which is a Muslim holy site of worship and an integral part of a World Heritage Site The Survey of Western Palestine , Jerusalem , 1884, p.119: \"The Jamia el Aksa, or 'distant mosque' (that is, distant from Mecca), is on the south, reaching to the outer wall. The whole enclosure of the Haram is called by Moslem writers Masjid el Aksa, 'praying-place of the Aksa,' from this mosque.\" Yitzhak Reiter : \"This article deals with the employment of religious symbols for national identities and national narratives by using the sacred compound in Jerusalem (The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa) as a case study. The narrative of The Holy Land involves three concentric circles, each encompassing the other, with each side having its own names for each circle. These are: Palestine/Eretz Israel (i.e., the Land of Israel); Jerusalem/al-Quds and finally The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa compound...Within the struggle over public awareness of Jerusalem's importance, one particular site is at the eye of the storm—the Temple Mount and its Western Wall—the Jewish Kotel—or, in Muslim terminology, the al-Aqsa compound (alternatively: al-Haram al-Sharif) including the al-Buraq Wall... \"Al-Aqsa\" for the Palestinian-Arab-Muslim side is not merely a mosque mentioned in the Quran within the context of the Prophet Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey to al-Aqsa which, according to tradition, concluded with his ascension to heaven (and prayer with all of the prophets and the Jewish and Christian religious figures who preceded him); rather, it also constitutes a unique symbol of identity, one around which various political objectives may be formulated, plans of action drawn up and masses mobilized for their realization\", \"Narratives of Jerusalem and its Sacred Compound\" Archived 21 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine , Israel Studies 18(2):115-132 (July 2013) Annika Björkdahl and Susanne Buckley-Zistel: \"The site is known in Arabic as Haram al-Sharif – the Noble Sanctuary – and colloquially as the Haram or the al-Aqsa compound; while in Hebrew, it is called Har HaBeit – the Temple Mount.\" Annika Björkdahl; Susanne Buckley-Zistel (1 May 2016). Spatialising Peace and Conflict: Mapping the Production of Places, Sites and Scales of Violence . Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 243–. ISBN 978-1-137-55048-4 . Archived from the original on 21 May 2022 . Retrieved 21 May 2022 . Mahdi Abdul Hadi :\"Al-Aqsa Mosque, also referred to as Al-Haram Ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary), comprises the entire area within the compound walls (a total area of 144,000 m2) - including all the mosques, prayer rooms, buildings, platforms and open courtyards located above or under the grounds - and exceeds 200 historical monuments pertaining to various Islamic eras. According to Islamic creed and jurisprudence, all these buildings and courtyards enjoy the same degree of sacredness since they are built on Al-Aqsa's holy grounds. This sacredness is not exclusive to the physical structures allocated for prayer, like the Dome of the Rock or Al-Qibly Mosque (the mosque with the large silver dome)\" Mahdi Abdul Hadi Archived 2020-02-16 at the Wayback Machine Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs ; Tim Marshall: \"Many people believe that the mosque depicted is called the Al-Aqsa; however, a visit to one of Palestine's most eminent intellectuals, Mahdi F. Abdul Hadi, clarified the issue. Hadi is chairman of the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, based in East Jerusalem. His offices are a treasure trove of old photographs, documents, and symbols. He was kind enough to spend several hours with me. He spread out maps of Jerusalem's Old City on a huge desk and homed in on the Al-Aqsa compound, which sits above the Western Wall. \"The mosque in the Al-Aqsa [Brigades] flag is the Dome of the Rock. Everyone takes it for granted that it is the Al-Aqsa mosque, but no, the whole compound is Al-Aqsa, and on it are two mosques, the Qibla mosque and the Dome of the Rock, and on the flags of both Al-Aqsa Brigades and the Qassam Brigades, it is the Dome of the Rock shown,\" he said. Tim Marshall (4 July 2017). A Flag Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of National Symbols . Simon and Schuster. pp. 151–. ISBN 978-1-5011-6833-8 . Archived from the original on 12 September 2019 . Retrieved 17 April 2018 . * Hughes, Aaron W. (2014). Theorizing Islam: Disciplinary Deconstruction and Reconstruction . Religion in Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-317-54594-1 . Archived from the original on 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 24 June 2022 . Although later commentators would debate whether or not this journey was a physical one or took place at an internal level, it would come to play a crucial role in establishing Muhammad's prophetic credentials. In the first part of this journey, referred to as the isra, he traveled from the Kaba in Mecca to \"the farthest mosque\" (al-masjid al-aqsa), identified with the Temple Mount in Jerusalem: the al-Aqsa mosque that stands there today eventually took its name from this larger precinct, in which it was constructed. * Sway, Mustafa A. (2015), \"Al-Aqsa Mosque: Do Not Intrude!\" , Palestine - Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture , 20/21 (4): 108– 113, ProQuest 1724483297 , archived from the original on 19 July 2023 , retrieved 28 July 2022 , Ahmed ibn Hanbal (780–855): \"Verily, 'Al-Aqsa' is a name for the whole mosque which is surrounded by the wall, the length and width of which are mentioned here, for the building that exists in the southern part of the Mosque, and the other ones such as the Dome of the Rock and the corridors and other [buildings] are novel (muhdatha).\" Mustafa Sway: More than 500 years ago, when Mujir Al-Din Al-Hanbali offered the above definition of Al-Aqsa Mosque in the year 900 AH/1495, there were no conflicts, no occupation and no contesting narratives surrounding the site. * Omar, Abdallah Marouf (2017). \"Al-Aqsa Mosque's Incident in July 2017: Affirming the Policy of Deterrence\" . Insight Turkey . 19 (3): 69– 82. doi : 10.25253/99.2017193.05 . hdl : 20.500.12723/2121 . JSTOR 26300531 . In a treaty signed by Jordan and the Palestinian Authority on March 31, 2013, both sides define al-Aqsa Mosque as being \"al-Masjid al-Aqsa with its 144 dunums, which include the Qibli Mosque of al-Aqsa, the Mosque of the Dome of the Rock, and all its mosques, buildings, walls, courtyards\". ... Israel insists on identifying al-Aqsa Mosque as being a small building. ... Nonetheless, the Executive Board of UNESCO adopted the Jordanian definition of al-Aqsa Mosque in its Resolution (199 EX/PX/DR.19.1 Rev). * Occupied Palestine: draft decision (199 EX/PX/DR.19.1 REV), UNESCO Executive Board . UNESCO. 2016. ^ The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest Archived 15 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine , Cambridge University Press, Jodi Magness, page 355"
  },
  {
   "title": "Palestinian genocide allegations",
   "pageid": 75036342,
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   "lead_before": "This article is about the question of Palestinian genocide throughout the entire Israeli–Palestinian conflict. For the ongoing genocide by Israel against Palestinians in Gaza, see Gaza genocide . Since its foundation in 1948, Israel has been accused of carrying out genocide against Palestinians during the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . A wide consensus of scholars have concluded that Israel's actions during the Gaza war since 2023 constitute genocide , although debate continues over whether Israel's treatment of Palestinians since the Nakba —prior to 2023—also constitutes genocide, and whether such actions are continuous or limited to specific periods or events. This treatment has also been characterised as \"slow-motion genocide\", as well as a corollary or expression of settler colonialism and indigenous land theft . Those who believe Israel's actions constitute genocide point to the entrenched anti-Palestinianism , anti-Arab racism , Islamophobia and genocidal rhetoric in Israeli society, and point to events such as the Nakba , the Sabra and Shatila massacre , the blockade of the Gaza Strip , the 2014 Gaza War , and the 2023–present Gaza war as particularly pertinent genocidal episodes. International law and genocide scholars have accused Israeli officials of using dehumanising language. On 29 December 2023, South Africa filed a case against Israel at the International Court of Justice , alleging that Israel's conduct in Gaza during the 2023 war amounted to genocide. South Africa asked the ICJ to issue provisional measures, including ordering Israel to halt its military campaign in Gaza. The Israeli government agreed to defend itself at the ICJ proceedings, while also denouncing South Africa's actions as \"disgraceful\" and accusing it of abetting \"the modern heirs of the Nazis \". South Africa's case has been supported by a number of countries . On 26 January 2024, the ICJ issued a preliminary ruling finding that the claims in South Africa's filing were \"plausible\" and issued an order to Israel requiring them to take all measures within their power to prevent acts of genocide and to allow basic humanitarian services into Gaza. Israel and the United States have rejected the assertion that the former is engaging in genocide. While some scholars describe Palestinians as victims of genocide, others argue that what took place was ethnic cleansing , politicide , spaciocide , cultural genocide or similar. Some critics of the accusation have argued that charges of Israel committing genocide are commonly made by anti-Zionists with the aim of delegitimising or demonising Israel . ^ \"Israel's occupation: 76 years of Palestinian tragedy\" . Anadolu (in Turkish) . Retrieved 26 April 2026 . ^ Lendman 2010 , pp. 30–33. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLendman2010 ( help ) ^ Nijim 2023 , p. 177. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNijim2023 ( help ) ^ Rashed & Short 2012 , pp. 1143, 1148–1149. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRashedShort2012 ( help ) ^ Docker 2012 , p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDocker2012 ( help ) ^ El-Affendi 2024 , p. 1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEl-Affendi2024 ( help ) ; Short 2016 , p. 10 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShort2016 ( help ) ; Shaw 2013 , p. 4 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShaw2013 ( help ) ; Rashed, Short & Docker 2014 , pp. 13–15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRashedShortDocker2014 ( help ) ; Usher 2006 , pp. 10–14, 28–29 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFUsher2006 ( help ) ; Saldívar 2010 , pp. 826–827, 828–829 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSaldívar2010 ( help ) ; Khoury 2018 , pp. 117–118 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKhoury2018 ( help ) ; Nijim 2020 , pp. 41–47; Samudzi 2024 , pp. 7–8 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSamudzi2024 ( help ) ; United Nations 2022 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFUnited_Nations2022 ( help ) ; Adhikari et al. 2018 , p. 148 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAdhikariCarmichaelJonesKapila2018 ( help ) ; Üngör 2024 , pp. 3–4: \"or Israeli settler colonial genocide\" harvnb error: no target: CITEREFÜngör2024 ( help ) ^ Center for Constitutional Rights 2016 , p. 6. ^ Eghbariah 2023 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEghbariah2023 ( help ) ; Shaw 2013 , pp. 1–7 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShaw2013 ( help ) ; Nijim 2023 , pp. 173–174, 176–177 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNijim2023 ( help ) ^ Docker 2012 , p. 16 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDocker2012 ( help ) ; Munayyer 2015 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMunayyer2015 ( help ) ; Bruneau & Kteily 2017 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBruneauKteily2017 ( help ) ; Kuttab 2023 ; Wintour 2023 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWintour2023 ( help ) ^ \"Public Statement: Scholars Warn of Potential Genocide in Gaza\" . Third World Approaches to International Law Review . 17 October 2023. Archived from the original on 17 November 2023. Statements of Israeli officials since 7 October 2023 suggest that beyond the killings and restriction of basic conditions for life perpetrated against Palestinians in Gaza, there are also indications that the ongoing and imminent Israeli attacks on the Gaza Strip are being conducted with potentially genocidal intent. Language used by Israeli political and military figures appears to reproduce rhetoric and tropes associated with genocide and incitement to genocide. Dehumanising descriptions of Palestinians have been prevalent. Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant declared on 9 October that \"we are fighting human animals and we act accordingly\". He subsequently announced that Israel was moving to \"a full-scale response\" and that he had \"removed every restriction\" on Israeli forces, as well as stating: \"Gaza won't return to what it was before. We will eliminate everything.\" On 10 October, the head of the Israeli army's Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories (COGAT), Maj. Gen. Ghassan Alian, addressed a message directly to Gaza residents: \"Human animals must be treated as such. There will be no electricity and no water, there will only be destruction. You wanted hell, you will get hell\". The same day, Israeli army spokesperson Daniel Hagari acknowledged the wanton and intentionally destructive nature of Israel's bombing campaign in Gaza: \"The emphasis is on damage and not on accuracy.\" ^ Roelf, Wendell; Sterling, Toby (29 December 2023). \"South Africa files genocide case against Israel at World Court\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 31 December 2023 . Retrieved 29 December 2023 . ^ \"South Africa launches case at top UN court accusing Israel of genocide in Gaza\" . AP News . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 31 December 2023 . Retrieved 29 December 2023 . ^ Lazaroff, Tovah (2 January 2024). \"Israel to defend itself at Int'l Court of Justice's genocide hearing on Gaza\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 6 January 2024 . Retrieved 2 January 2024 . ^ ~ \"Bolivia to support South Africa's ICJ genocide case against Israel\" . The Jerusalem Post . 8 January 2024. Archived from the original on 8 January 2024 . Retrieved 8 January 2024 . Shamim 2024 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShamim2024 ( help ) Human Rights Watch 2024 Salem, Mohammed; Al-Mughrabi, Nidal; Anthony, Deutsch (10 January 2024). \"Israel to face Gaza genocide charges at World Court\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 12 January 2024 . Retrieved 11 January 2024 . Colombia and Brazil expressed their support of South Africa late Wednesday. Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2024 Khaliq, Riyaz ul (10 January 2024). \" 'Morally, politically:' Indonesia backs South Africa against Israel at ICJ\" . Anadolu Agency . Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. \"Iran backs South Africa's Gaza genocide case against Israel at ICJ\" . Anadolu Agency . 11 January 2024. Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. \"Iraq backs South Africa's case against Israel at ICJ\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 14 January 2024 . Retrieved 12 January 2024 . ^ \"Read the I.C.J. ruling\" . The New York Times . 26 January 2024. ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on 26 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 January 2024 . ^ Magid, Jacob (7 November 2023). \"White House spokesman appears to reject claim Israel committing 'genocide' \" . Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 22 November 2023. ^ Sales, Ben (27 May 2021). \"People are accusing Israel of genocide. These human rights lawyers beg to differ\" . Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 23 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 November 2023 . ^ Pappé 2006 . sfn error: no target: CITEREFPappé2006 ( help ) ^ Shaw 2013 , pp. 1–2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShaw2013 ( help ) ^ Rashed, Short & Docker 2014 , pp. 9–10. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRashedShortDocker2014 ( help ) ^ Rashed, Short & Docker 2014 , pp. 12–15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRashedShortDocker2014 ( help ) ; Lentin 2008 , p. 10 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLentin2008 ( help ) ; Lentin 2010 , pp. 20–21 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLentin2010 ( help ) : \"While neither 'categorial murder' nor genocide, the Nakba has been described as 'ethnic cleansing' (Pappé, 2006) or 'spaciocide' (Hanafi, 2005), perpetrated by self categorising 'Jews', 'Zionists', or 'Israelis', against people they categorised as 'Arabs'.\" ^ Corn, David (3 November 2023). \"During a Trip to Israel, Mike Johnson Connected With Far-Right Extremists\" . Mother Jones . Archived from the original on 2 January 2024 . Retrieved 2 January 2024 . During the trip, Johnson observed, \"You hear in the US about how the Palestinians or the Arab people are oppressed in these areas, and have these terrible lives. None of that is true. We didn't see any of it.\" ^ Lentin 2010 , pp. 20–21. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLentin2010 ( help ) ^ Pappé, Ilan (28 January 2008). \"Genocide in Gaza, Ethnic Cleansing in the West Bank\" . The Indypendent . Archived from the original on 18 January 2024 . Retrieved 16 February 2024 – via Countercurrents . ^ Lentin 2010 , p. 142. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLentin2010 ( help ) ^ Hirsh, David (2015). \"Anti Zionism and Antisemitism: Cosmopolitan Reflections\" (PDF) . The Yale Papers: Antisemitism in Comparative Perspective : 106– 107. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2023 . Retrieved 7 December 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "This article is about the question of Palestinian genocide throughout the entire Israeli–Palestinian conflict. For the ongoing genocide by Israel against Palestinians in Gaza, see Gaza genocide . Since its foundation in 1948, Israel has been accused of carrying out genocide against Palestinians during the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . A wide consensus of scholars have concluded that Israel's actions during the Gaza war since 2023 constitute genocide , although debate continues over whether Israel's treatment of Palestinians since the Nakba —prior to 2023—also constitutes genocide, and whether such actions are continuous or limited to specific periods or events. This treatment has also been characterised as \"slow-motion genocide\", as well as a corollary or expression of settler colonialism and indigenous land theft . Those who believe Israel's actions constitute genocide point to the entrenched anti-Palestinian racism , anti-Arab racism , Islamophobia and genocidal rhetoric in Israeli society, and point to events such as the Nakba , the Sabra and Shatila massacre , the blockade of the Gaza Strip , the 2014 Gaza War , and the 2023–present Gaza war as particularly pertinent genocidal episodes. International law and genocide scholars have accused Israeli officials of using dehumanising language. On 29 December 2023, South Africa filed a case against Israel at the International Court of Justice , alleging that Israel's conduct in Gaza during the 2023 war amounted to genocide. South Africa asked the ICJ to issue provisional measures, including ordering Israel to halt its military campaign in Gaza. The Israeli government agreed to defend itself at the ICJ proceedings, while also denouncing South Africa's actions as \"disgraceful\" and accusing it of abetting \"the modern heirs of the Nazis \". South Africa's case has been supported by a number of countries . On 26 January 2024, the ICJ issued a preliminary ruling finding that the claims in South Africa's filing were \"plausible\" and issued an order to Israel requiring them to take all measures within their power to prevent acts of genocide and to allow basic humanitarian services into Gaza. Israel and the United States have rejected the assertion that the former is engaging in genocide. While some scholars describe Palestinians as victims of genocide, others argue that what took place was ethnic cleansing , politicide , spaciocide, cultural genocide or similar. Some critics of the accusation have argued that charges of Israel committing genocide are commonly made by anti-Zionists with the aim of demonising or delegitimising Israel . ^ \"Israel's occupation: 76 years of Palestinian tragedy\" . Anadolu (in Turkish) . Retrieved 26 April 2026 . ^ Lendman 2010 , pp. 30–33. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLendman2010 ( help ) ^ Nijim 2023 , p. 177. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNijim2023 ( help ) ^ Rashed & Short 2012 , pp. 1143, 1148–1149. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRashedShort2012 ( help ) ^ Docker 2012 , p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDocker2012 ( help ) ^ El-Affendi 2024 , p. 1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEl-Affendi2024 ( help ) ; Short 2016 , p. 10 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShort2016 ( help ) ; Shaw 2013 , p. 4 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShaw2013 ( help ) ; Rashed, Short & Docker 2014 , pp. 13–15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRashedShortDocker2014 ( help ) ; Usher 2006 , pp. 10–14, 28–29 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFUsher2006 ( help ) ; Saldívar 2010 , pp. 826–827, 828–829 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSaldívar2010 ( help ) ; Khoury 2018 , pp. 117–118 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKhoury2018 ( help ) ; Nijim 2020 , pp. 41–47; Samudzi 2024 , pp. 7–8 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSamudzi2024 ( help ) ; United Nations 2022 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFUnited_Nations2022 ( help ) ; Adhikari et al. 2018 , p. 148 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAdhikariCarmichaelJonesKapila2018 ( help ) ; Üngör 2024 , pp. 3–4: \"or Israeli settler colonial genocide\" harvnb error: no target: CITEREFÜngör2024 ( help ) ^ Center for Constitutional Rights 2016 , p. 6. ^ Eghbariah 2023 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEghbariah2023 ( help ) ; Shaw 2013 , pp. 1–7 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShaw2013 ( help ) ; Nijim 2023 , pp. 173–174, 176–177 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNijim2023 ( help ) ^ Docker 2012 , p. 16 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFDocker2012 ( help ) ; Munayyer 2015 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMunayyer2015 ( help ) ; Bruneau & Kteily 2017 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBruneauKteily2017 ( help ) ; Kuttab 2023 ; Wintour 2023 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWintour2023 ( help ) ^ \"Public Statement: Scholars Warn of Potential Genocide in Gaza\" . Third World Approaches to International Law Review . 17 October 2023. Archived from the original on 17 November 2023. Statements of Israeli officials since 7 October 2023 suggest that beyond the killings and restriction of basic conditions for life perpetrated against Palestinians in Gaza, there are also indications that the ongoing and imminent Israeli attacks on the Gaza Strip are being conducted with potentially genocidal intent. Language used by Israeli political and military figures appears to reproduce rhetoric and tropes associated with genocide and incitement to genocide. Dehumanising descriptions of Palestinians have been prevalent. Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant declared on 9 October that \"we are fighting human animals and we act accordingly\". He subsequently announced that Israel was moving to \"a full-scale response\" and that he had \"removed every restriction\" on Israeli forces, as well as stating: \"Gaza won't return to what it was before. We will eliminate everything.\" On 10 October, the head of the Israeli army's Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories (COGAT), Maj. Gen. Ghassan Alian, addressed a message directly to Gaza residents: \"Human animals must be treated as such. There will be no electricity and no water, there will only be destruction. You wanted hell, you will get hell\". The same day, Israeli army spokesperson Daniel Hagari acknowledged the wanton and intentionally destructive nature of Israel's bombing campaign in Gaza: \"The emphasis is on damage and not on accuracy.\" ^ Roelf, Wendell; Sterling, Toby (29 December 2023). \"South Africa files genocide case against Israel at World Court\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 31 December 2023 . Retrieved 29 December 2023 . ^ \"South Africa launches case at top UN court accusing Israel of genocide in Gaza\" . AP News . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 31 December 2023 . Retrieved 29 December 2023 . ^ Lazaroff, Tovah (2 January 2024). \"Israel to defend itself at Int'l Court of Justice's genocide hearing on Gaza\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 6 January 2024 . Retrieved 2 January 2024 . ^ ~ \"Bolivia to support South Africa's ICJ genocide case against Israel\" . The Jerusalem Post . 8 January 2024. Archived from the original on 8 January 2024 . Retrieved 8 January 2024 . Shamim 2024 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShamim2024 ( help ) Human Rights Watch 2024 Salem, Mohammed; Al-Mughrabi, Nidal; Anthony, Deutsch (10 January 2024). \"Israel to face Gaza genocide charges at World Court\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 12 January 2024 . Retrieved 11 January 2024 . Colombia and Brazil expressed their support of South Africa late Wednesday. Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2024 Khaliq, Riyaz ul (10 January 2024). \" 'Morally, politically:' Indonesia backs South Africa against Israel at ICJ\" . Anadolu Agency . Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. \"Iran backs South Africa's Gaza genocide case against Israel at ICJ\" . Anadolu Agency . 11 January 2024. Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. \"Iraq backs South Africa's case against Israel at ICJ\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 14 January 2024 . Retrieved 12 January 2024 . ^ \"Read the I.C.J. ruling\" . The New York Times . 26 January 2024. ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on 26 January 2024 . Retrieved 26 January 2024 . ^ Magid, Jacob (7 November 2023). \"White House spokesman appears to reject claim Israel committing 'genocide' \" . Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 22 November 2023. ^ Sales, Ben (27 May 2021). \"People are accusing Israel of genocide. These human rights lawyers beg to differ\" . Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 23 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 November 2023 . ^ Pappé 2006 . sfn error: no target: CITEREFPappé2006 ( help ) ^ Shaw 2013 , pp. 1–2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFShaw2013 ( help ) ^ Rashed, Short & Docker 2014 , pp. 9–10. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRashedShortDocker2014 ( help ) ^ Rashed, Short & Docker 2014 , pp. 12–15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRashedShortDocker2014 ( help ) ; Lentin 2008 , p. 10 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLentin2008 ( help ) ; Lentin 2010 , pp. 20–21 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLentin2010 ( help ) : \"While neither 'categorial murder' nor genocide, the Nakba has been described as 'ethnic cleansing' (Pappé, 2006) or 'spaciocide' (Hanafi, 2005), perpetrated by self categorising 'Jews', 'Zionists', or 'Israelis', against people they categorised as 'Arabs'.\" ^ Corn, David (3 November 2023). \"During a Trip to Israel, Mike Johnson Connected With Far-Right Extremists\" . Mother Jones . Archived from the original on 2 January 2024 . Retrieved 2 January 2024 . During the trip, Johnson observed, \"You hear in the US about how the Palestinians or the Arab people are oppressed in these areas, and have these terrible lives. None of that is true. We didn't see any of it.\" ^ Lentin 2010 , pp. 20–21. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLentin2010 ( help ) ^ Pappé, Ilan (28 January 2008). \"Genocide in Gaza, Ethnic Cleansing in the West Bank\" . The Indypendent . Archived from the original on 18 January 2024 . Retrieved 16 February 2024 – via Countercurrents . ^ Lentin 2010 , p. 142. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLentin2010 ( help ) ^ Hirsh, David (2015). \"Anti Zionism and Antisemitism: Cosmopolitan Reflections\" (PDF) . The Yale Papers: Antisemitism in Comparative Perspective : 106– 107. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2023 . Retrieved 7 December 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "List of genocides",
   "pageid": 39136264,
   "revid_before": 1361075426,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-24T20:31:16Z",
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   "lead_before": "This list includes all events which have been classified as genocide by significant scholarship. As there are varying definitions of genocide , this list includes events around which there is ongoing scholarly debate over their classification as genocide and is not a list of only events which have a scholarly consensus to recognize them as genocide. This list excludes mass killings which have not been explicitly defined as genocidal. According to the Genocide Convention , genocides have happened in all historical periods. ^ McKenna, Erin; Pratt, Scott L. (2015). American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present . Bloomsbury . p. 375. ^ \"Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide\" (PDF) . The UN . 1948 . Retrieved 17 September 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "This list includes all events which have been classified as genocide by significant scholarship. As there are varying definitions of genocide , this list includes events around which there is ongoing scholarly debate over their classification as genocide and is not a list of only events which have a scholarly consensus to recognize them as genocide. This list excludes mass killings which have not been explicitly defined as genocidal. According to the Genocide Convention , genocides have happened in all historical periods. ^ McKenna, Erin; Pratt, Scott L. (2015). American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present . Bloomsbury . p. 375. ^ \"Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide\" (PDF) . The UN . 1948 . Retrieved 17 September 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Pinkwashing (LGBTQ)",
   "pageid": 44821234,
   "revid_before": 1361142906,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-22T21:26:43Z",
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pinkwashing_(LGBTQ)&oldid=1365502120",
   "lead_before": "Promotional use of LGBTQ rights Man wearing t-shirt reading \"Can't Pinkwash This - LGBTQI+ Against Apartheid\" in Rennes , 2018 Culture Business Coming out Community African-American Disability and LGBTQ people Drag culture in New York City Dyke March Events Awareness periods Largest events Gay village Homophile movement Media Bury your gays Films New queer cinema Periodicals LGBTQ culture in New York City Pride Pride Month Parade Queer art QPR and QPP Same-sex relationship Cross-sex relationship Slang Polari Socialization Subcultures Symbols Flags Takatāpui Transgender culture of New York City Moe aikāne Tourism Wigstock Rights Adoption Civil union Decriminalization Gender self-identification Intersex Legal recognition of intersex people Legal recognition of non-binary gender Marriage Military service Parenting Rights by country or territory Trans rights Yogyakarta Principles Health Association of LGBTQ Psychiatrists MSM and Blood donation restrictions / HIV LGBTQ medical organizations Reproduction Mental health National LGBT Cancer Network Transgender health care Gender-affirming hormone therapy Gender-affirming surgery Gender transition Legal status of gender-affirming healthcare Misinformation Suicide Societal attitudes Allonormative amatonormative Cisnormative Heteronormative Comphet Opposition to LGBTQ rights UK anti-trans movement 2020s US anti-LGBTQ Trump-era persecution of trans people Grooming conspiracy theory Media portrayal Religion & LGBTQ Homosexuality Trans people Sexual diversity Stereotypes Issues Acephobia Arophobia AIDS stigma Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric Biphobia Bullying Censorship Closeted Outing Criminalization Domestic violence Erasure Straightwashing Bisexual Lesbian Trans Gay bashing Gayphobia Heteropatriarchy Heterosexism Homophobia Liberal Intersex discrimination Legality of conversion therapy Lesbophobia Suicide Youth vulnerability Migration Mixed-orientation marriage Racism Sexualism Transphobia Non-binary people Transgender inequality Trans men Trans women Violence in Belize in UK in US List Trans people Academic fields and discourse Communism & LGBTQ rights Gender studies Lesbian feminism Lavender linguistics LGBTQ conservatism In the US Neuroqueer theory Queer anarchism Queer studies Queer theory Social construction of gender Socialism & LGBTQ rights Transfeminism Transgender studies Travesti See also Autism and LGBTQ people Discrimination against LGBTQ people Gay-friendly GLAAD LGBTQ-affirming religious groups LGBTQ ageing LGBTQ retirement issues in the United States LGBTQ sex education Straight ally LGBTQ portal v t e Pinkwashing , also known as rainbow-washing , is the strategy of deploying messages that are superficially sympathetic towards the LGBTQ community for ends having little or nothing to do with LGBTQ equality or inclusion, including in rainbow capitalism and other forms of LGBTQ marketing . ^ Rodríguez, Ashley (June 15, 2022). \"What is Rainbow Washing? And Why You Should Prevent It During Pride Month\" . rockcontent.com . Archived from the original on June 22, 2023 . Retrieved June 8, 2023 . ^ Russell 2019 , p. 182. ^ \"Profit From Pride – Pinkwashing as Part of Modern Marketing\" . pressrelations Blog . August 27, 2020. Archived from the original on July 7, 2022 . Retrieved May 12, 2022 .",
   "lead_after": "Promotional use of LGBTQ rights Man wearing t-shirt reading \"Can't Pinkwash This - LGBTQI+ Against Apartheid\" in Rennes , 2018 Culture Business Coming out Community African-American Disability and LGBTQ people Drag culture in New York City Dyke March Events Awareness periods Largest events Gay village Homophile movement Media Bury your gays Films New queer cinema Periodicals LGBTQ culture in New York City Pride Pride Month Parade Queer art QPR and QPP Same-sex relationship Cross-sex relationship Slang Polari Socialization Subcultures Symbols Flags Takatāpui Transgender culture of New York City Moe aikāne Tourism Wigstock Rights Adoption Civil union Decriminalization Gender self-identification Intersex Legal recognition of intersex people Legal recognition of non-binary gender Marriage Military service Parenting Rights by country or territory Trans rights Yogyakarta Principles Health Association of LGBTQ Psychiatrists MSM and Blood donation restrictions / HIV LGBTQ medical organizations Reproduction Mental health National LGBT Cancer Network Transgender health care Gender-affirming hormone therapy Gender-affirming surgery Gender transition Legal status of gender-affirming healthcare Misinformation Suicide Societal attitudes Allonormative amatonormative Cisnormative Heteronormative Comphet Opposition to LGBTQ rights UK anti-trans movement 2020s US anti-LGBTQ Trump-era persecution of trans people Grooming conspiracy theory Media portrayal Religion & LGBTQ Homosexuality Trans people Sexual diversity Stereotypes Issues Acephobia Arophobia AIDS stigma Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric Biphobia Bullying Censorship Closeted Outing Criminalization Domestic violence Erasure Straightwashing Bisexual Lesbian Trans Gay bashing Gayphobia Heteropatriarchy Heterosexism Homophobia Liberal Intersex discrimination Legality of conversion therapy Lesbophobia Suicide Youth vulnerability Migration Mixed-orientation marriage Racism Sexualism Transphobia Non-binary people Transgender inequality Trans men Trans women Violence in Belize in UK in US List Trans people Academic fields and discourse Communism & LGBTQ rights Gender studies Lesbian feminism Lavender linguistics LGBTQ conservatism In the US Neuroqueer theory Queer anarchism Queer studies Queer theory Social construction of gender Socialism & LGBTQ rights Transfeminism Transgender studies Travesti See also Autism and LGBTQ people Discrimination against LGBTQ people Gay-friendly GLAAD LGBTQ-affirming religious groups LGBTQ ageing LGBTQ retirement issues in the United States LGBTQ sex education Straight ally LGBTQ portal v t e Pinkwashing , also known as rainbow-washing , is the strategy of deploying messages that are superficially sympathetic towards the LGBTQ community for ends having little or nothing to do with LGBTQ equality or inclusion, including in rainbow capitalism and other forms of LGBTQ marketing . ^ Rodríguez, Ashley (June 15, 2022). \"What is Rainbow Washing? And Why You Should Prevent It During Pride Month\" . rockcontent.com . Archived from the original on June 22, 2023 . Retrieved June 8, 2023 . ^ Russell 2019 , p. 182. ^ \"Profit From Pride – Pinkwashing as Part of Modern Marketing\" . pressrelations Blog . August 27, 2020. Archived from the original on July 7, 2022 . Retrieved May 12, 2022 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "New antisemitism",
   "pageid": 675582,
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   "lead_before": "New antisemitism refers to the concept that a form of antisemitism , typically manifesting as anti-Zionism , developed in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The concept dates to the early 1970s, and was popularized in The New Anti-Semitism by Arnold Forster and Benjamin Epstein of the Anti-Defamation League . Proponents of the concept generally argue that anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel – or double standards applied to Israel's conduct (some also include anti-Americanism , anti-globalization , and Third-Worldism ) – represent an evolution in the appearance of antisemitic beliefs that are linked to antisemitism, or constitute disguised antisemitism, particularly when emanating from the far left , Islamism , and the far right simultaneously. Some call this a third political wave of antisemitism, after the religious and racial forms dominant in previous periods, and constituting the first and second waves. Critics argue that, in practice, the concept is used to weaponize antisemitism by conflating political anti-Zionism, criticism of the Israeli government, or comparisons between the Israeli government's actions and the Holocaust with racism or support for violence against Jews, while stifling both political debate and freedom of speech about the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Supporters of the concept, however, have criticized these arguments as antisemitic and rhetorically irrelevant to the contested reality of new antisemitism. Critics further argue that the concept defines legitimate criticism of Israel too narrowly and demonization too broadly, trivializing the very notion of antisemitism. ^ Fastenbauer, Raimund (2020). \"Islamic Antisemitism: Jews in the Qur'an, Reflections of European Antisemitism, Political Anti-Zionism: Common Codes and Differences\". In Lange, Armin; Mayerhofer, Kerstin; Porat, Dina; Schiffman, Lawrence H. (eds.). An End to Antisemitism! – Volume 2: Confronting Antisemitism from the Perspectives of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism . Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter . pp. 279– 300. doi : 10.1515/9783110671773-018 . ISBN 9783110671773 . ^ Berkman, Matthew (2022). \"The Conflict on Campus\". In A. Siniver (ed.). Routledge Companion to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict . Taylor & Francis. p. 522. ISBN 978-0-429-64861-8 . Retrieved 2023-05-21 . Attempts to rearticulate antisemitism to encompass opposition to Israel's 'right to exist' or its character as a Jewish state date back to the 1970s, when the Anti-Defamation League first popularized a discourse on 'the new antisemitism' (see Forster and Epstein 1974; on the subsequent development of that discourse see Judaken 2008). The identification of anti-Zionism with antisemitism has long been de rigueur in Jewish communal and broader pro-Israel circles, but only in the last two decades have Israel advocacy groups endeavoured to establish it as a principle of United States anti-discrimination law. The earliest step in this direction was taken in 2004, when Kenneth L. Marcus, the Assistant Secretary of Education for the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) under President George W. Bush, issued a game-changing policy guidance letter empowering OCR staff, for the first time, to investigate complaints under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act alleging pervasive antisemitism on college campuses. ^ Gerstenfeld, Manfred (Spring 2005). \"The Deep Roots of Anti-Semitism in European Society\" . Jewish Political Studies Review . 17 ( 1– 2). ^ Taguieff 2004 , pp. 4–5. ^ Cohen, Florette (September 2011). The New Anti-Semitism Israel Model: Empirical Tests . BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-243-56139-8 . ^ Hirsh, David (January 2010). \"Accusations of malicious intent in debates about the Palestine-Israel conflict and about antisemitism: The Livingstone Formulation, 'playing the antisemitism card' and contesting the boundaries of antiracist discourse\" (PDF) . Transversal : 47– 77. ^ Klaff, Lesley (2016-12-01), Wistrich, Robert S. (ed.), Holocaust inversion in British politics : the case of David Ward , University of Nebraska Press, pp. 185– 196, ISBN 978-0-8032-9671-8 , retrieved 2024-01-09 ^ Klug, Brian (January 15, 2004). \"The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism\" . The Nation . Retrieved January 9, 2006 . ^ Lerner, Michael (February 5, 2007). \"There Is No New Anti-Semitism\" . HuffPost Contributors . Archived from the original on 2025-08-12 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Beller, Steven (2007). \"In Zion's hall of mirrors: a comment on Neuer Antisemitismus ?\" . Patterns of Prejudice . 41 (2): 215– 238, 223. doi : 10.1080/00313220701265585 . The idea that there has been an explosion of antisemitic sentiment in Europe has more to do with American, Israeli and Zionist discomfort with strong European criticism of Israeli policy than it has with actual antisemitism. ^ Ury, Scott (October 2018). \"Strange Bedfellows? Anti-Semitism, Zionism, and the Fate of 'the Jews' \". American Historical Review . 123 (4): 1151–1171 [1152]. doi : 10.1093/ahr/rhy030 . One of the biggest problems facing the study of anti-Semitism today: its ongoing, seemingly inescapable connection to public affairs and the extent to which contemporary political concerns, in particular those regarding Zionism and the State of Israel, influence and shape the way that many scholars frame, interpret, and research anti-Semitism.",
   "lead_after": "New antisemitism refers to the concept that a form of antisemitism , typically manifesting as anti-Zionism , developed in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The concept dates to the early 1970s, and was popularized in The New Anti-Semitism by Arnold Forster and Benjamin Epstein of the Anti-Defamation League . Proponents of the concept generally argue that anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel – or double standards applied to Israel's conduct (some also include anti-Americanism , anti-globalization , and Third-Worldism ) – represent an evolution in the appearance of antisemitic beliefs that are linked to antisemitism, or constitute disguised antisemitism, particularly when emanating from the far left , Islamism , and the far right simultaneously. Some call this a third political wave of antisemitism, after the religious and racial forms dominant in previous periods, and constituting the first and second waves. Critics argue that, in practice, the concept is used to weaponize antisemitism by conflating political anti-Zionism, criticism of the Israeli government, or comparisons between the Israeli government's actions and the Holocaust with racism or support for violence against Jews, while stifling both political debate and freedom of speech about the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Supporters of the concept, however, have criticized these arguments as antisemitic and rhetorically irrelevant to the contested reality of new antisemitism. Critics further argue that the concept defines legitimate criticism of Israel too narrowly and demonization too broadly, trivializing the very notion of antisemitism. ^ Fastenbauer, Raimund (2020). \"Islamic Antisemitism: Jews in the Qur'an, Reflections of European Antisemitism, Political Anti-Zionism: Common Codes and Differences\". In Lange, Armin; Mayerhofer, Kerstin; Porat, Dina; Schiffman, Lawrence H. (eds.). An End to Antisemitism! – Volume 2: Confronting Antisemitism from the Perspectives of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism . Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter . pp. 279– 300. doi : 10.1515/9783110671773-018 . ISBN 9783110671773 . ^ Berkman, Matthew (2022). \"The Conflict on Campus\". In A. Siniver (ed.). Routledge Companion to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict . Taylor & Francis. p. 522. ISBN 978-0-429-64861-8 . Retrieved 2023-05-21 . Attempts to rearticulate antisemitism to encompass opposition to Israel's 'right to exist' or its character as a Jewish state date back to the 1970s, when the Anti-Defamation League first popularized a discourse on 'the new antisemitism' (see Forster and Epstein 1974; on the subsequent development of that discourse see Judaken 2008). The identification of anti-Zionism with antisemitism has long been de rigueur in Jewish communal and broader pro-Israel circles, but only in the last two decades have Israel advocacy groups endeavoured to establish it as a principle of United States anti-discrimination law. The earliest step in this direction was taken in 2004, when Kenneth L. Marcus, the Assistant Secretary of Education for the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) under President George W. Bush, issued a game-changing policy guidance letter empowering OCR staff, for the first time, to investigate complaints under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act alleging pervasive antisemitism on college campuses. ^ Gerstenfeld, Manfred (Spring 2005). \"The Deep Roots of Anti-Semitism in European Society\" . Jewish Political Studies Review . 17 ( 1– 2). ^ Taguieff 2004 , pp. 4–5. ^ Cohen, Florette (September 2011). The New Anti-Semitism Israel Model: Empirical Tests . BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-243-56139-8 . ^ Hirsh, David (January 2010). \"Accusations of malicious intent in debates about the Palestine-Israel conflict and about antisemitism: The Livingstone Formulation, 'playing the antisemitism card' and contesting the boundaries of antiracist discourse\" (PDF) . Transversal : 47– 77. ^ Klaff, Lesley (2016-12-01), Wistrich, Robert S. (ed.), Holocaust inversion in British politics : the case of David Ward , University of Nebraska Press, pp. 185– 196, ISBN 978-0-8032-9671-8 , retrieved 2024-01-09 ^ Klug, Brian (January 15, 2004). \"The Myth of the New Anti-Semitism\" . The Nation . Retrieved January 9, 2006 . ^ Lerner, Michael (February 5, 2007). \"There Is No New Anti-Semitism\" . HuffPost Contributors . Archived from the original on 2025-08-12 . Retrieved February 6, 2007 . ^ Beller, Steven (2007). \"In Zion's hall of mirrors: a comment on Neuer Antisemitismus ?\" . Patterns of Prejudice . 41 (2): 215– 238, 223. doi : 10.1080/00313220701265585 . The idea that there has been an explosion of antisemitic sentiment in Europe has more to do with American, Israeli and Zionist discomfort with strong European criticism of Israeli policy than it has with actual antisemitism. ^ Ury, Scott (October 2018). \"Strange Bedfellows? Anti-Semitism, Zionism, and the Fate of 'the Jews' \". American Historical Review . 123 (4): 1151–1171 [1152]. doi : 10.1093/ahr/rhy030 . One of the biggest problems facing the study of anti-Semitism today: its ongoing, seemingly inescapable connection to public affairs and the extent to which contemporary political concerns, in particular those regarding Zionism and the State of Israel, influence and shape the way that many scholars frame, interpret, and research anti-Semitism."
  },
  {
   "title": "Weaponization of antisemitism",
   "pageid": 75688057,
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   "lead_before": "Politically motivated accusations of antisemitism The exploitation of the accusation of antisemitism , especially to delegitimize criticism of Israel or opposition to Zionism , is sometimes called weaponization of antisemitism . Cases of weaponizing antisemitism have arisen in various contexts, especially regarding the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . There has been controversy over the concept of new antisemitism and the IHRA definition of antisemitism , both of which characterize criticism of Israel and opposition to Zionism as antisemitic. Charges of antisemitism made in bad faith have been described as a smear tactic and likened to \"playing the race card \". Some anti-Zionist Jews have been accused of antisemitism and labeled \" self-hating Jews \". The charge of weaponization has itself been criticized as antisemitic or rooted in antisemitic tropes , and as a rhetorical device employed across the political spectrum to delegitimize concerns about antisemitism, especially in anti-Zionist discourse. These controversies have intensified during the Gaza war . ^ Illustrative examples: Landy, Lentin & McCarthy 2020 , p. 15: \"The weaponizing of antisemitism against US critics of Israel was evidenced in 2019 when Florida's upper legislative chamber unanimously passed a bill that classifies certain criticism of Israel as antisemitic\" Consonni, Manuela (1 March 2023). \"Memory, Memorialization, and the Shoah After 'the End of History' \" . In Keren Eva Fraiman, Dean Phillip Bell (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Judaism in the 21st Century . Taylor & Francis. p. 170. ISBN 9781000850321 . The exploitation, the instrumentalization, the weaponization of antisemitism, a concomitant of its de-historicization and de-textualization, became a metonymy for speaking of the Jewish genocide and of anti-Zionism in a way that confined its history to the court's benches and research library and its memory to a reconstruction based mostly on criteria of memorial legitimacy for and against designated social groups. Medico International; Rothberg, Michael (15 February 2024). \"The Interview :We need an ethics of comparison\" . Medico International . 'The far-right instrumentalization of antisemitism and solidarity with Israel is one of the most disturbing developments of recent years.' Roth-Rowland, Natasha (28 July 2020). \"False charges of antisemitism are the vanguard of cancel culture\" . +972 Magazine . This weaponizing of antisemitism is not only 'cancelling' Palestinian rights advocates and failing to make Jews any safer; it's also using Jews to cancel others. Abraham 2014 , p. 171: \"indeed, the charge of anti-Semitism, if it is to be taken seriously, must be leveled with precision and not as a scatter-shot propaganda device for scoring cheap political points.\" ^ Waxman, Schraub & Hosein 2022 . ^ Hernon, I. (2020). Anti-Semitism and the Left . Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-3981-0224-8 . Retrieved 25 October 2024 . The Jewish Socialists Group said that anti-Semitism accusations were being 'weaponised' in order to attack the Jeremy Corbyn–led Labour party ^ Examples of criticism as smear tactics : White 2020 : \"Delegitimizing Solidarity: Israel Smears Palestine Advocacy as Anti-Semitic\" Mearsheimer & Walt 2008 , pp. 9–11: \"because [former U.S. President Jimmy Carter ] suggests that Israel's policies in the Occupied Territories resemble South Africa's apartheid regime and said publicly that pro-Israel groups make it hard for U.S. leaders to pressure Israel to make peace, a number of these same groups launched a vicious smear campaign against him.\" Amor 2022 : \"...organizations challenging Israel's violations would be fully exposed to smear campaigns based on bad-faith allegations of antisemitism\" Steinberg 2023 : \"Smearing one's opponents is rarely a tactic employed by those confident that justice is on their side. If Israel's case requires branding its critics antisemites, it is already conceding defeat.\" ^ Examples of the term \"antisemitism card\": Quigley 2021 , pp. 251–252: \"The term 'race card' has been applied to this phenomenon in a related context...'\" Finkelstein 2008 , pp. 15–16 Hirsh 2010 Bronfman, Roman (19 November 2003). \"Fanning the Flames of Hatred\" . Haaretz . ...This time, too, the anti-Semitism card has been pulled from the sleeve of explanations by the Israeli government and its most faithful spokespeople have been sent to wave it. Marcus 2010 , pp. 68–69: \"Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that overplaying the 'anti-Semitism card' must be avoided for several reasons. These are, generally speaking, a subset of the risks of playing 'the race card' that Stanford Law Professor Richard Thompson Ford catalogued in his important recent book of that name.\" ^ See: Abraham 2014 , pp. 67–68: \"The traditional response to this problem has been to label anti-Zionist Jews as 'self-hating Jews'\" Chomsky 1989 , p. 433: \"It is now necessary to identify criticism of Israeli policies as anti-Semitism—or in the case of Jews, as 'self-hatred'...\" Goodman 2025 : \"Chomsky (1989) shows how Zionists have endeavoured 'to identify criticism of Israeli policies as anti-Semitism—or in the case of Jews, as \"self-hatred\"'\" ^ Guhl, Jakob; Mering, Sabine von (22 March 2022). \" \"Everyone I Know Isn't Antisemitic\" \". Antisemitism on Social Media . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-000-55429-8 . Hirsh 2010 , p. 47: \"While the issue of antisemitism is certainly sometimes raised in an unjustified way, and may even be raised in bad faith, the Livingstone Formulation [the defense that antisemitism is being used to deflect from one's criticism of Israel] may appear as a response to any discussion of contemporary antisemitism.\" ^ Cite error: The named reference Cohen-2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Bonefeld-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Politically motivated accusations of antisemitism The exploitation of the accusation of antisemitism , especially to delegitimize criticism of Israel or opposition to Zionism , is sometimes called weaponization of antisemitism . Cases of weaponizing antisemitism have arisen in various contexts, especially regarding the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . There has been controversy over the concept of new antisemitism and the IHRA definition of antisemitism , both of which characterize criticism of Israel and opposition to Zionism as antisemitic. Charges of antisemitism made in bad faith have been described as a smear tactic and likened to \"playing the race card \". Some anti-Zionist Jews have been accused of antisemitism and labeled \" self-hating Jews \". The charge of weaponization has itself been criticized as antisemitic or rooted in antisemitic tropes , and as a rhetorical device employed across the political spectrum to delegitimize concerns about antisemitism, especially in anti-Zionist discourse. These controversies have intensified during the Gaza war . ^ Illustrative examples: Landy, Lentin & McCarthy 2020 , p. 15: \"The weaponizing of antisemitism against US critics of Israel was evidenced in 2019 when Florida's upper legislative chamber unanimously passed a bill that classifies certain criticism of Israel as antisemitic\" Consonni, Manuela (1 March 2023). \"Memory, Memorialization, and the Shoah After 'the End of History' \" . In Keren Eva Fraiman, Dean Phillip Bell (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Judaism in the 21st Century . Taylor & Francis. p. 170. ISBN 9781000850321 . The exploitation, the instrumentalization, the weaponization of antisemitism, a concomitant of its de-historicization and de-textualization, became a metonymy for speaking of the Jewish genocide and of anti-Zionism in a way that confined its history to the court's benches and research library and its memory to a reconstruction based mostly on criteria of memorial legitimacy for and against designated social groups. Medico International; Rothberg, Michael (15 February 2024). \"The Interview :We need an ethics of comparison\" . Medico International . 'The far-right instrumentalization of antisemitism and solidarity with Israel is one of the most disturbing developments of recent years.' Roth-Rowland, Natasha (28 July 2020). \"False charges of antisemitism are the vanguard of cancel culture\" . +972 Magazine . This weaponizing of antisemitism is not only 'cancelling' Palestinian rights advocates and failing to make Jews any safer; it's also using Jews to cancel others. Abraham 2014 , p. 171: \"indeed, the charge of anti-Semitism, if it is to be taken seriously, must be leveled with precision and not as a scatter-shot propaganda device for scoring cheap political points.\" ^ Waxman, Schraub & Hosein 2022 . ^ Hernon, I. (2020). Anti-Semitism and the Left . Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-3981-0224-8 . Retrieved 25 October 2024 . The Jewish Socialists Group said that anti-Semitism accusations were being 'weaponised' in order to attack the Jeremy Corbyn–led Labour party ^ Examples of criticism as smear tactics : White 2020 : \"Delegitimizing Solidarity: Israel Smears Palestine Advocacy as Anti-Semitic\" Mearsheimer & Walt 2008 , pp. 9–11: \"because [former U.S. President Jimmy Carter ] suggests that Israel's policies in the Occupied Territories resemble South Africa's apartheid regime and said publicly that pro-Israel groups make it hard for U.S. leaders to pressure Israel to make peace, a number of these same groups launched a vicious smear campaign against him.\" Amor 2022 : \"...organizations challenging Israel's violations would be fully exposed to smear campaigns based on bad-faith allegations of antisemitism\" Steinberg 2023 : \"Smearing one's opponents is rarely a tactic employed by those confident that justice is on their side. If Israel's case requires branding its critics antisemites, it is already conceding defeat.\" ^ Examples of the term \"antisemitism card\": Quigley 2021 , pp. 251–252: \"The term 'race card' has been applied to this phenomenon in a related context...'\" Finkelstein 2008 , pp. 15–16 Hirsh 2010 Bronfman, Roman (19 November 2003). \"Fanning the Flames of Hatred\" . Haaretz . ...This time, too, the anti-Semitism card has been pulled from the sleeve of explanations by the Israeli government and its most faithful spokespeople have been sent to wave it. Marcus 2010 , pp. 68–69: \"Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged that overplaying the 'anti-Semitism card' must be avoided for several reasons. These are, generally speaking, a subset of the risks of playing 'the race card' that Stanford Law Professor Richard Thompson Ford catalogued in his important recent book of that name.\" ^ See: Abraham 2014 , pp. 67–68: \"The traditional response to this problem has been to label anti-Zionist Jews as 'self-hating Jews'\" Chomsky 1989 , p. 433: \"It is now necessary to identify criticism of Israeli policies as anti-Semitism—or in the case of Jews, as 'self-hatred'...\" Goodman 2025 : \"Chomsky (1989) shows how Zionists have endeavoured 'to identify criticism of Israeli policies as anti-Semitism—or in the case of Jews, as \"self-hatred\"'\" ^ Guhl, Jakob; Mering, Sabine von (22 March 2022). \" \"Everyone I Know Isn't Antisemitic\" \". Antisemitism on Social Media . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-000-55429-8 . Hirsh 2010 , p. 47: \"While the issue of antisemitism is certainly sometimes raised in an unjustified way, and may even be raised in bad faith, the Livingstone Formulation [the defense that antisemitism is being used to deflect from one's criticism of Israel] may appear as a response to any discussion of contemporary antisemitism.\" ^ Cite error: The named reference Cohen-2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Bonefeld-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Rashida Tlaib",
   "pageid": 20927510,
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   "lead_before": "American politician and lawyer (born 1976) Rashida Harbi Tlaib ( / t ə ˈ l iː b / tə- LEEB ; née Elabed ; born July 24, 1976) is an American lawyer and politician serving as a U.S. representative from Michigan since 2019, representing the state's 12th congressional district since 2023. A member of the Democratic Party , she is the first Palestinian American woman to serve in Congress and one of the first two Muslim women (along with Ilhan Omar ) elected to Congress. Tlaib was born to working-class Palestinian immigrants in Detroit in 1976 and is the oldest of 14 children. She graduated from Southwestern High School in Detroit in 1994. Tlaib graduated from Wayne State University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 1998, and from Thomas M. Cooley Law School with a Juris Doctor in 2004. She was admitted to the bar in the state of Michigan in 2007. Tlaib's political career began in 2004, when she interned with State Representative Steve Tobocman , who hired her to his staff when he became majority floor leader in 2007. He encouraged her to run for his seat the next year. She did so, and won the 2008 election, becoming the first Muslim woman to serve in the state legislature. Tlaib represented the 6th and 12th districts in the Michigan House of Representatives . In 2018, Tlaib won the Democratic nomination and the general election for the United States House of Representatives in Michigan's 13th congressional district . She and Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez are the first female members of Democratic Socialists of America to serve in Congress. Tlaib is a member of The Squad , an informal group of U.S. representatives on the left wing of the Democratic Party. As a U.S. representative, Tlaib has been a vocal critic of both the Trump and Biden administrations. She has argued in favor of abolishing U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement and voted to impeach President Donald Trump in both 2019 and 2021 . Tlaib has been sharply critical of Israel , viewing it as an apartheid state . She has called for an end to U.S. aid to Israel ; she supports the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement and a one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . On November 7, 2023, Tlaib was censured by the House of Representatives in response to her public statements following the October 7 attacks on Israel. She has criticized U.S. support of Israel in the Gaza war . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Rashida Tlaib - Politics, Career & Facts\" . Biography . April 20, 2021 . Retrieved June 6, 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "American politician and lawyer (born 1976) Rashida Harbi Tlaib ( / t ə ˈ l iː b / tə- LEEB ; née Elabed ; born July 24, 1976) is an American lawyer and politician serving as a U.S. representative from Michigan since 2019, representing the state's 12th congressional district since 2023. A member of the Democratic Party , she is the first Palestinian American woman to serve in Congress and one of the first two Muslim women (along with Ilhan Omar ) elected to Congress. Tlaib was born to working-class Palestinian immigrants in Detroit in 1976 and is the oldest of 14 children. She graduated from Southwestern High School in Detroit in 1994. Tlaib graduated from Wayne State University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 1998, and from Thomas M. Cooley Law School with a Juris Doctor in 2004. She was admitted to the bar in the state of Michigan in 2007. Tlaib's political career began in 2004, when she interned with State Representative Steve Tobocman , who hired her to his staff when he became majority floor leader in 2007. He encouraged her to run for his seat the next year. She did so, and won the 2008 election, becoming the first Muslim woman to serve in the state legislature. Tlaib represented the 6th and 12th districts in the Michigan House of Representatives . In 2018, Tlaib won the Democratic nomination and the general election for the United States House of Representatives in Michigan's 13th congressional district . She and Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez are the first female members of Democratic Socialists of America to serve in Congress. Tlaib is a member of The Squad , an informal group of U.S. representatives on the left wing of the Democratic Party. As a U.S. representative, Tlaib has been a vocal critic of both the Trump and Biden administrations. She has argued in favor of abolishing U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement and voted to impeach President Donald Trump in both 2019 and 2021 . Tlaib has been sharply critical of Israel , viewing it as an apartheid state . She has called for an end to U.S. aid to Israel ; she supports the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions movement and a one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . On November 7, 2023, Tlaib was censured by the House of Representatives in response to her public statements following the October 7 attacks on Israel. She has criticized U.S. support of Israel in the Gaza war . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Anti-Zionism",
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   "lead_before": "Opposition to Zionism \"Jewish anti-Zionism\" redirects here. For organizations, see List of Jewish anti-Zionist organizations . Not to be confused with Antisemitism , Criticism of Israel , Jewish pro-Palestinian activism , or Non-Zionism . Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism . Although anti-Zionism is a heterogeneous phenomenon, all its proponents agree that the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, and the movement to create a sovereign Jewish state in the region of Palestine —a region partly coinciding with the biblical Land of Israel —was flawed or unjust in some way. Before World War II , opposition to Zionism was common among Jewish communities . Secular critics viewed Zionism as a form of nationalism inconsistent with Enlightenment universalism, while some Orthodox groups opposed it on theological grounds, regarding the establishment of a Jewish state as contingent upon the arrival of the Messiah . Support for Zionism increased during the 1930s as conditions for Jews rapidly deteriorated in Europe due to the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany , and Zionism began to prevail over opposition to it in the Jewish diaspora . With the Second World War, the sheer scale of the Holocaust was felt, and support for Zionism increased dramatically. After the establishment of the State of Israel in the 1948 Palestine war , anti-Zionism shifted from opposition to the creation of a Jewish state to opposition to Israel's existence, with many postwar movements advocating its replacement by an alternative political entity. Most Jewish anti-Zionist movements disintegrated or transformed into pro-Zionist organizations, though some, including the American Council for Judaism , continued to oppose the ideology. Outside the Jewish community, opposition to Zionism developed primarily among Arab populations, particularly Palestinians , after the mass displacement of Palestinian Arabs during the 1948 war (the Nakba ), which many Palestinians and scholars consider a form of colonial dispossession. Anti-Zionism comes in various forms. Some anti-Zionists seek to replace Israel and its occupied territories with a single state that would putatively give Jews and Palestinians equal rights. These anti-Zionists have argued that a binational state would still realize Jewish self-determination, as self-determination need not imply a separate state. Some challenge the legitimacy of the State of Israel . Some are anti-Zionist for religious reasons, such as some Haredi Jews , and others seek the oppression or ethnic cleansing of Israeli Jews instead. The relationship between anti-Zionism and antisemitism is debated, with some academics and organizations rejecting the linkage as unfounded and a form of weaponization of antisemitism used to stifle criticism of Israel and its policies, including the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and blockade of the Gaza Strip , while others, particularly supporters of Zionism, argue that anti-Zionism is inherently antisemitic or constitutes new antisemitism . ^ Mor, Shany (Summer 2019). \"On Three Anti-Zionisms\". Israel Studies . 24 (2): 206+. doi : 10.2979/israelstudies.24.2.16 . ^ Kolsky 2009 , p. 333. ^ Halperin 1961 , pp. 451–452. ^ Said, Edward W. (1979). \"Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Victims\". The Question of Palestine . New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-394-74527-5 . ^ Eghbariah, Rabea (May 2024). \"Toward Nakba as a Legal Concept\" . Columbia Law Review . 124 (4) . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . ^ Khalidi 2020 . ^ Darweish, Marwan (11 May 2023). \"The Nakba: how the Palestinians were expelled from Israel\" . The Conversation . Retrieved 6 January 2026 . ^ Shlaim, Avi (August 1995). \"The Debate about 1948\" . International Journal of Middle East Studies . 27 (3): 287– 304. doi : 10.1017/S0020743800062097 . ISSN 0020-7438 . ^ \"Congress Is Absolutely Wrong to Equate Anti-Zionism With Antisemitism\" . jacobin.com . Retrieved 7 October 2024 . Not all anti-Zionisms are the same. As we've seen, some religious groups like the Satmar oppose Zionism for theological reasons. There are also illiberal opponents of Zionism who dream of replacing the oppression and displacement of Palestinians with the oppression or displacement of Israeli Jews. But at least in the United States and other Western societies, these are relatively rare positions....I've long been sympathetic to the idea of a one-state solution for Israel and Palestine. Simply granting equality to everyone who lives within Israel's current borders and letting the refugees return home would mean a state with roughly equal numbers of Jewish and Palestinian citizens. ^ Cite error: The named reference Said-1999 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"There Is No Right to a State\" . Jewish Currents . Retrieved 7 October 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Opposition to Zionism \"Jewish anti-Zionism\" redirects here. For organizations, see List of Jewish anti-Zionist organizations . Not to be confused with Antisemitism , Criticism of Israel , Jewish pro-Palestinian activism , or Non-Zionism . Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism . Although anti-Zionism is a heterogeneous phenomenon, all its proponents agree that the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, and the movement to create a sovereign Jewish state in the region of Palestine —a region partly coinciding with the biblical Land of Israel —was flawed or unjust in some way. Before World War II , opposition to Zionism was common among Jewish communities . Secular critics viewed Zionism as a form of nationalism inconsistent with Enlightenment universalism, while some Orthodox groups opposed it on theological grounds, regarding the establishment of a Jewish state as contingent upon the arrival of the Messiah . Support for Zionism increased during the 1930s as conditions for Jews rapidly deteriorated in Europe due to the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany , and Zionism began to prevail over opposition to it in the Jewish diaspora . With the Second World War, the sheer scale of the Holocaust was felt, and support for Zionism increased dramatically. After the establishment of the State of Israel in the 1948 Palestine war , anti-Zionism shifted from opposition to the creation of a Jewish state to opposition to Israel's existence, with many postwar movements advocating its replacement by an alternative political entity. Most Jewish anti-Zionist movements disintegrated or transformed into pro-Zionist organizations, though some, including the American Council for Judaism , continued to oppose the ideology. Outside the Jewish community, opposition to Zionism developed primarily among Arab populations, particularly Palestinians , after the mass displacement of Palestinian Arabs during the 1948 war (the Nakba ), which many Palestinians and scholars consider a form of colonial dispossession. Anti-Zionism comes in various forms. Some anti-Zionists seek to replace Israel and its occupied territories with a single state that would putatively give Jews and Palestinians equal rights. These anti-Zionists have argued that a binational state would still realize Jewish self-determination, as self-determination need not imply a separate state. Some challenge the legitimacy of the State of Israel . Some are anti-Zionist for religious reasons, such as some Haredi Jews , and others seek the oppression or ethnic cleansing of Israeli Jews instead. The relationship between anti-Zionism and antisemitism is debated, with some academics and organizations rejecting the linkage as unfounded and a form of weaponization of antisemitism used to stifle criticism of Israel and its policies, including the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and blockade of the Gaza Strip , while others, particularly supporters of Zionism, argue that anti-Zionism is inherently antisemitic or constitutes new antisemitism . ^ Mor, Shany (Summer 2019). \"On Three Anti-Zionisms\". Israel Studies . 24 (2): 206+. doi : 10.2979/israelstudies.24.2.16 . ^ Kolsky 2009 , p. 333. ^ Halperin 1961 , pp. 451–452. ^ Said, Edward W. (1979). \"Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Victims\". The Question of Palestine . New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-394-74527-5 . ^ Eghbariah, Rabea (May 2024). \"Toward Nakba as a Legal Concept\" . Columbia Law Review . 124 (4) . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . ^ Khalidi 2020 . ^ Darweish, Marwan (11 May 2023). \"The Nakba: how the Palestinians were expelled from Israel\" . The Conversation . Retrieved 6 January 2026 . ^ Shlaim, Avi (August 1995). \"The Debate about 1948\" . International Journal of Middle East Studies . 27 (3): 287– 304. doi : 10.1017/S0020743800062097 . ISSN 0020-7438 . ^ \"Congress Is Absolutely Wrong to Equate Anti-Zionism With Antisemitism\" . jacobin.com . Retrieved 7 October 2024 . Not all anti-Zionisms are the same. As we've seen, some religious groups like the Satmar oppose Zionism for theological reasons. There are also illiberal opponents of Zionism who dream of replacing the oppression and displacement of Palestinians with the oppression or displacement of Israeli Jews. But at least in the United States and other Western societies, these are relatively rare positions....I've long been sympathetic to the idea of a one-state solution for Israel and Palestine. Simply granting equality to everyone who lives within Israel's current borders and letting the refugees return home would mean a state with roughly equal numbers of Jewish and Palestinian citizens. ^ Cite error: The named reference Said-1999 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"There Is No Right to a State\" . Jewish Currents . Retrieved 7 October 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Gaza War (2008–2009)",
   "pageid": 20855562,
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   "lead_before": "Armed conflict in the Gaza Strip For other conflicts called the \"Gaza War\", see 2012 Gaza War , 2014 Gaza War , and Gaza war . Belligerents Israel Israel Defense Forces Israel Security Agency Gaza Strip Hamas Al-Qassam Brigades Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Abu Ali Mustapha Brigades Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine Al-Quds Brigades Ex- Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Popular Resistance Committees Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades Commanders and leaders Ehud Olmert Prime Minister Ehud Barak Minister of Defense Gabi Ashkenazi Chief of General Staff Yoav Galant Southern Command Ido Nehoshtan Air Force Eli Marom Navy Eyal Eisenberg Gaza Division Yuval Diskin Internal Security Service Khaled Mashal Ismail Haniyeh Mohammed Deif Abu Zakaria al-Jamal † Ahmed Jabari Osama Mazini Nizar Rayan † Mahmoud al-Zahar Ramadan Shallah Jamil Mezher Strength IDF: 4,000 –20,000 deployed in ground invasion and tens of thousands of reservists mobilized (176,000 total active personnel) Hamas (Al-Qassam Brigades and paramilitary police): 20,000 (est. total) Other Palestinian paramilitary forces: 10,000 Casualties and losses Total killed : 13 Soldiers: 10 ( friendly fire : 4) Civilians: 3 Total wounded : 518 Soldiers: 336 Civilians: 182 Total killed : Per PCHR : 1,417 (17% combatants) Per Al Mezan : 1,409 (17% combatants) Per B'Tselem : 1,391 (25% combatants) Per IDF : 1,166 (61% combatants) Per GHM : 1,440 Total wounded : 5,303 (per PCHR ) Total captured : 120 (per IDF ) One Egyptian border guard officer killed and three wounded, and two children wounded. Over 50,800 Gaza residents displaced. Over 4,000 homes destroyed; around $2bn worth of damage to Gaza * 255 ( PCHR ) or 265 (B'Tselem) police officers were killed. The Gaza War , also known as the First Gaza War , Operation Cast Lead , or the Gaza Massacre , and referred to as the Battle of al-Furqan by Hamas , was a three-week armed conflict between Gaza Strip Palestinian paramilitary groups and the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) that began on 27 December 2008 and ended on 18 January 2009 with a unilateral ceasefire. The conflict resulted in 1,166–1,417 Palestinian and 13 Israeli deaths. Over 46,000 homes were destroyed in Gaza, making more than 100,000 people homeless. A six month long ceasefire between Israel and Hamas ended on 4 November, when the IDF entered Deir al-Balah to destroy a tunnel, killing several Hamas militants. Israel said the raid was a preemptive strike in the wake of Hamas intentions to abduct Israeli soldiers, while Hamas characterized it as a ceasefire violation, and responded with rocket fire into Israel . Attempts to renew a truce between Israel and Hamas were unsuccessful. On 27 December, Israel began Operation Cast Lead with the stated aim of stopping rocket fire. Israel attacked police stations, military targets including weapons caches and suspected rocket firing teams, as well as political and administrative institutions in Gaza , Khan Yunis and Rafah . After hostilities broke out, Palestinian groups fired rockets in retaliation. The international community considers indiscriminate attacks on civilians and civilian structures as illegal under international law . The Israeli ground invasion began on 3 January. On 5 January, the IDF began operating in densely populated urban centers of Gaza. During the last week of the offensive (from 12 January), Israel struck Palestinian rocket-launching units. Hamas intensified its rocket and mortar attacks against civilian targets in southern Israel, reaching Beersheba and Ashdod . The conflict ended on 18 January. The IDF declared a unilateral ceasefire, followed by Hamas' announcing a one-week ceasefire twelve hours later. The IDF completed its withdrawal on 21 January. In September 2009, a UN special mission , headed by the South African Justice Richard Goldstone , produced a report accusing both Palestinian militants and the Israeli army of war crimes and possible crimes against humanity, and recommended bringing those responsible to justice. In 2011, Goldstone wrote that he did not believe that Israel intentionally targeted civilians in Gaza as a matter of policy. The other authors of the report, Hina Jilani , Christine Chinkin , and Desmond Travers , stated that no new evidence had been gathered to dispute the report's findings. On 21 September 2012, the United Nations Human Rights Council wrote that 75% of the homes damaged in the attacks remained in a state of disrepair. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bauer0123 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Aviation Week 2009-05-11 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Spyer, Jonathan (10 September 2009). \"Hamas seeks new doctrine after Gaza War failures\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 3 November 2012 . Retrieved 24 March 2010 . ^ Cite error: The named reference nytimes.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Victorious, but vilified: Israel has 'destroyed its image and its soul' was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hamas leader in Syria announce one-week ceasefire in Gaza\" . Xinhua. 18 January 2009. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009 . Retrieved 3 August 2009 . ^ \"Hamas agrees to 1-week ceasefire\" . CBC News. 18 January 2009 . Retrieved 3 August 2009 . ^ \"Gaza Humanitarian Situation Report – January 2, 2009 as of 14:30\" (PDF) . United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . 2 January 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2009 . Retrieved 2 January 2009 . ^ Altman, Alex (4 January 2009). \"Hamas Leader Khaled Mashaal\" . Time . Archived from the original on 6 February 2009 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . ^ Butcher, Tim (2 January 2009). \"Israel bombs Gaza for seventh day after killing Hamas leader\" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . ^ \"Israel vows no let-up over Gaza\" . BBC News . 5 January 2009 . Retrieved 4 May 2010 . ^ Jason Koutsoukis (4 January 2009). \"Israeli troops enter Gaza\" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ Fletcher, Martin (12 January 2009). \"Israel reinforces army before 'third phase' of war in Gaza\" . The Times . London . Retrieved 17 May 2010 . (subscription required) ^ \"Institute for National Security Studies\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2010 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . ^ \"Israeli think tank: Hamas has 20,000 armed men in Gaza Strip\" , Associated Press, Haaretz , 10 April 2008 ^ Butcher, Tim (5 January 2009). \"Hamas fighters now a well-organised force\" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022 . Retrieved 3 May 2010 . ^ Haidar Eid (2 January 2009). \"Israel's war of terror against Gaza\" . Socialist Worker . Archived from the original on 15 June 2010 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . ^ Cite error: The named reference latimes2009jan13 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Field update on Gaza from the Humanitarian Coordinator\" Archived 5 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine . 24–26 January 2009. OCHA oPt ( United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs – occupied Palestinian territory). oachopt.org Archived 6 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine . ^ PCHR 2009 . ^ Cite error: The named reference mezan was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ B'Tselem . ^ Lappin 2009 . ^ Cite error: The named reference OCHAFeb5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"קצין מצרי נהרג מירי אנשי חמאס סמוך למעבר רפיח\" [Egyptian officer killed by Hamas near the Rafah crossing] (in Hebrew). nana 10. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018 . Retrieved 1 January 2009 . ^ \"Two Egyptian Children, Police Injured in Israeli Air Strike Near Gaza Border\" . 11 January 2009. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. ^ \"Gaza 'looks like earthquake zone'\" . BBC. 19 January 2009 ^ \"Gaza: Humanitarian situation\" . BBC News . 30 January 2009 . Retrieved 24 March 2010 . ^ Sherry, Robert (2016). The Endless Quest for Israeli-Palestinian Peace . Springer. p. 25. ^ Waxman, Dov (2019). The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: What Everyone Needs to Know . Oxford University Press. p. 64. ^ \"What to know about Hamas\" . Deutsche Welle . 8 October 2023. ^ The operation began in the midst of celebrating the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah ; the name \"Cast Lead\" ( עופרת יצוקה , Hebrew pronunciation: [ofeʁet jetsuka] ) is a famous phrase from Israel's national poet Hayim Nahman Bialik 's popular Hebrew children's song \"Likhvod haḤanukkah\" ( לכבוד החנוכה ). In the song (see article in the Hebrew Wikipedia ), the child narrator is given a dreidel made of cast lead. See \"Operation Cast Lead\" in: Gavriely-Nuri, Dalia (2013). The Normalization of War in Israeli Discourse, 1967–2008 . Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 42– 43. ISBN 978-0-7391-7260-5 . , on Google Books ; Gavriely-Nuri, \"30 shana leMilkhemet Levanon haRishona: mabat mekhudash\" (conference), 3rd session: yitzugei Levanon vehamilkhama batarbut haYisre'elit, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem – The Leonard Davis Institute for International Relations, The Department of International Relation and The Department of Communication and Journalism, 2 May 2012, 1:05:52 ff. (lecture begins at 56:25) (Hebrew). ^ Gaita, Raimond , ed. (2010). Gaza: Morality, Law & Politics . UWA Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-74258-096-8 . ^ Fisher, David; Wicker, Brian (2010). Just war on terror?: A Christian and Muslim response . Ashgate Publishing. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-4094-0808-6 . ^ Wiegand, Krista (2010). Bombs and ballots: governance by Islamist terrorist and guerrilla groups . Ashgate Publishing. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-7546-7891-5 . ^ \"Studies on the Israeli Aggression on Gaza Strip: Cast Lead Operation / Al-Furqan Battle\" . Al-Zaytuna Center for Studies & Consultations. Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. ... the Cast Lead Operation or al-Furqan Battle as named by Israel and Hamas respectively ... Secondary source, Abdul-Hameed al-Kayyali, Studies on the Israeli Aggression on Gaza Strip: Cast Lead Operation / Al-Furqan Battle , 2009 ^ Maximilian Felsch (2011). Die Hamas: eine pragmatische soziale Bewegung?: Eine transnationale empirische Fallanalyse der Hamas in den besetzten Gebieten, in Jordanien, im Libanon und in Syrien [ Hamas: a pragmatic social movement?: A transnational empirical case analysis of Hamas in the occupied territories, in Jordan, in Lebanon and in Syria ] (in German). Waxmann Verlag. p. 106. ISBN 978-3-8309-2611-5 . Retrieved 24 December 2011 . ^ Al-Mughrabi, Nidal. Israel tightens grip on urban parts of Gaza Archived 9 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ Filiu 2014 , p. 318. ^ Israel and Hamas: Conflict in Gaza (2008–2009) (PDF) , Congressional Research Service, 19 February 2009, pp. 6– 7 ^ McCarthy, Rory (5 November 2008). \"Gaza truce broken as Israeli raid kills six Hamas gunmen\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 26 April 2020 . ^ McCarthy, Rory (5 November 2008). \"Gaza truce broken as Israeli raid kills six Hamas gunmen\" . the Guardian . Retrieved 4 March 2020 . ^ \"Q&A: Gaza conflict\" , BBC 18-01-2009 ^ John Kroll; Torchia; Alfred de Montesquiou (18 January 2009). \"Israeli troops exiting Gaza; Hamas ceases fire\" . The Plain Dealer . Cleveland. ^ Rory McCarthy (16 September 2009). \"Israel rejects war crimes findings of UN Gaza inquiry\" . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 8 May 2010 . ^ Bright, Arthur. \"Israel set to launch 'limited operation' in Gaza\" , The Christian Science Monitor , 26 December 2008. Archived 8 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ \"Report of the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict\" (PDF) . London: United Nations Human Rights Council . Retrieved 15 September 2009 . ^ Cite error: The named reference bbc1309 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference HRW was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Protection of the civilian population\" . Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977 . International Committee of the Red Cross . Retrieved 10 July 2014 . ^ Cite error: The named reference AI_briefing was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Israeli Arsenal was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Rockets land east of Ashdod\" Archived 4 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine Ynetnews, 28 December 2008; \"Rockets reach Beersheba, cause damage\" , Ynetnews, 30 December 2008. ^ Lazaroff, Tovah (30 September 2009). \"Ashkelon rocket victim livid report ignored her plight\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 18 June 2011 . ^ \"Another Miracle: Rocket Hits Empty Synagogue\" . Arutz Sheva . Retrieved 8 May 2010 . ^ \"Hamas, Israel set independent cease-fires\" Archived 2 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine , CNN International; Last Israeli troops 'leave Gaza' , BBC News, 21 January 2009. ^ \"UN condemns 'war crimes' in Gaza\" , BBC News, 15 September 2009. ^ Goldstone, Richard (1 April 2011). \"Reconsidering the Goldstone Report on Israel and War Crimes\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 1 April 2011 . ^ Cite error: The named reference afp1404 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference g2011-04-14 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"A/HRC/21/33 of 21 September 2012\" . Unispal.un.org. Archived from the original on 20 September 2013 . Retrieved 17 August 2014 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Armed conflict in the Gaza Strip For other conflicts called the \"Gaza War\", see 2012 Gaza War , 2014 Gaza War , and Gaza war . Belligerents Israel Israel Defense Forces Israel Security Agency Gaza Strip Hamas Al-Qassam Brigades Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Abu Ali Mustapha Brigades Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine Al-Quds Brigades Ex- Fatah Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Popular Resistance Committees Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades Commanders and leaders Ehud Olmert Prime Minister Ehud Barak Minister of Defense Gabi Ashkenazi Chief of General Staff Yoav Galant Southern Command Ido Nehoshtan Air Force Eli Marom Navy Eyal Eisenberg Gaza Division Yuval Diskin Internal Security Service Khaled Mashal Ismail Haniyeh Mohammed Deif Abu Zakaria al-Jamal † Ahmed Jabari Osama Mazini Nizar Rayan † Mahmoud al-Zahar Ramadan Shallah Jamil Mezher Strength IDF: 4,000 –20,000 deployed in ground invasion and tens of thousands of reservists mobilized (176,000 total active personnel) Hamas (Al-Qassam Brigades and paramilitary police): 20,000 (est. total) Other Palestinian paramilitary forces: 10,000 Casualties and losses Total killed : 13 Soldiers: 10 ( friendly fire : 4) Civilians: 3 Total wounded : 518 Soldiers: 336 Civilians: 182 Total killed : Per PCHR : 1,417 (17% combatants) Per Al Mezan : 1,409 (17% combatants) Per B'Tselem : 1,391 (25% combatants) Per IDF : 1,166 (61% combatants) Per GHM : 1,440 Total wounded : 5,303 (per PCHR ) Total captured : 120 (per IDF ) One Egyptian border guard officer killed and three wounded, and two children wounded. Over 50,800 Gaza residents displaced. Over 4,000 homes destroyed; around $2bn worth of damage to Gaza * 255 ( PCHR ) or 265 (B'Tselem) police officers were killed. The Gaza War , also known as the First Gaza War , Operation Cast Lead , or the Gaza Massacre , and referred to as the Battle of al-Furqan by Hamas , was a three-week armed conflict between Gaza Strip Palestinian paramilitary groups and the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) that began on 27 December 2008 and ended on 18 January 2009 with a unilateral ceasefire. The conflict resulted in 1,166–1,417 Palestinian and 13 Israeli deaths. Over 46,000 homes were destroyed in Gaza, making more than 100,000 people homeless. A six month long ceasefire between Israel and Hamas ended on 4 November, when the IDF entered Deir al-Balah to destroy a tunnel, killing several Hamas militants. Israel said the raid was a preemptive strike in the wake of Hamas intentions to abduct Israeli soldiers, while Hamas characterized it as a ceasefire violation, and responded with rocket fire into Israel . Attempts to renew a truce between Israel and Hamas were unsuccessful. On 27 December, Israel began Operation Cast Lead with the stated aim of stopping rocket fire. Israel attacked police stations, military targets including weapons caches and suspected rocket firing teams, as well as political and administrative institutions in Gaza , Khan Yunis and Rafah . After hostilities broke out, Palestinian groups fired rockets in retaliation. The international community considers indiscriminate attacks on civilians and civilian structures as illegal under international law . The Israeli ground invasion began on 3 January. On 5 January, the IDF began operating in densely populated urban centers of Gaza. During the last week of the offensive (from 12 January), Israel struck Palestinian rocket-launching units. Hamas intensified its rocket and mortar attacks against civilian targets in southern Israel, reaching Beersheba and Ashdod . The conflict ended on 18 January. The IDF declared a unilateral ceasefire, followed by Hamas' announcing a one-week ceasefire twelve hours later. The IDF completed its withdrawal on 21 January. In September 2009, a UN special mission , headed by the South African Justice Richard Goldstone , produced a report accusing both Palestinian militants and the Israeli army of war crimes and possible crimes against humanity, and recommended bringing those responsible to justice. In 2011, Goldstone wrote that he did not believe that Israel intentionally targeted civilians in Gaza as a matter of policy. The other authors of the report, Hina Jilani , Christine Chinkin , and Desmond Travers , stated that no new evidence had been gathered to dispute the report's findings. On 21 September 2012, the United Nations Human Rights Council wrote that 75% of the homes damaged in the attacks remained in a state of disrepair. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bauer0123 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Aviation Week 2009-05-11 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Spyer, Jonathan (10 September 2009). \"Hamas seeks new doctrine after Gaza War failures\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 3 November 2012 . Retrieved 24 March 2010 . ^ Cite error: The named reference nytimes.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Victorious, but vilified: Israel has 'destroyed its image and its soul' was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hamas leader in Syria announce one-week ceasefire in Gaza\" . Xinhua. 18 January 2009. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009 . Retrieved 3 August 2009 . ^ \"Hamas agrees to 1-week ceasefire\" . CBC News. 18 January 2009 . Retrieved 3 August 2009 . ^ \"Gaza Humanitarian Situation Report – January 2, 2009 as of 14:30\" (PDF) . United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . 2 January 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2009 . Retrieved 2 January 2009 . ^ Altman, Alex (4 January 2009). \"Hamas Leader Khaled Mashaal\" . Time . Archived from the original on 6 February 2009 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . ^ Butcher, Tim (2 January 2009). \"Israel bombs Gaza for seventh day after killing Hamas leader\" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . ^ \"Israel vows no let-up over Gaza\" . BBC News . 5 January 2009 . Retrieved 4 May 2010 . ^ Jason Koutsoukis (4 January 2009). \"Israeli troops enter Gaza\" . The Sydney Morning Herald . ^ Fletcher, Martin (12 January 2009). \"Israel reinforces army before 'third phase' of war in Gaza\" . The Times . London . Retrieved 17 May 2010 . (subscription required) ^ \"Institute for National Security Studies\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2010 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . ^ \"Israeli think tank: Hamas has 20,000 armed men in Gaza Strip\" , Associated Press, Haaretz , 10 April 2008 ^ Butcher, Tim (5 January 2009). \"Hamas fighters now a well-organised force\" . The Daily Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022 . Retrieved 3 May 2010 . ^ Haidar Eid (2 January 2009). \"Israel's war of terror against Gaza\" . Socialist Worker . Archived from the original on 15 June 2010 . Retrieved 5 June 2010 . ^ Cite error: The named reference latimes2009jan13 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Field update on Gaza from the Humanitarian Coordinator\" Archived 5 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine . 24–26 January 2009. OCHA oPt ( United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs – occupied Palestinian territory). oachopt.org Archived 6 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine . ^ PCHR 2009 . ^ Cite error: The named reference mezan was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ B'Tselem . ^ Lappin 2009 . ^ Cite error: The named reference OCHAFeb5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"קצין מצרי נהרג מירי אנשי חמאס סמוך למעבר רפיח\" [Egyptian officer killed by Hamas near the Rafah crossing] (in Hebrew). nana 10. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018 . Retrieved 1 January 2009 . ^ \"Two Egyptian Children, Police Injured in Israeli Air Strike Near Gaza Border\" . 11 January 2009. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. ^ \"Gaza 'looks like earthquake zone'\" . BBC. 19 January 2009 ^ \"Gaza: Humanitarian situation\" . BBC News . 30 January 2009 . Retrieved 24 March 2010 . ^ Sherry, Robert (2016). The Endless Quest for Israeli-Palestinian Peace . Springer. p. 25. ^ Waxman, Dov (2019). The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: What Everyone Needs to Know . Oxford University Press. p. 64. ^ \"What to know about Hamas\" . Deutsche Welle . 8 October 2023. ^ The operation began in the midst of celebrating the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah ; the name \"Cast Lead\" ( עופרת יצוקה , Hebrew pronunciation: [ofeʁet jetsuka] ) is a famous phrase from Israel's national poet Hayim Nahman Bialik 's popular Hebrew children's song \"Likhvod haḤanukkah\" ( לכבוד החנוכה ). In the song (see article in the Hebrew Wikipedia ), the child narrator is given a dreidel made of cast lead. See \"Operation Cast Lead\" in: Gavriely-Nuri, Dalia (2013). The Normalization of War in Israeli Discourse, 1967–2008 . Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 42– 43. ISBN 978-0-7391-7260-5 . , on Google Books ; Gavriely-Nuri, \"30 shana leMilkhemet Levanon haRishona: mabat mekhudash\" (conference), 3rd session: yitzugei Levanon vehamilkhama batarbut haYisre'elit, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem – The Leonard Davis Institute for International Relations, The Department of International Relation and The Department of Communication and Journalism, 2 May 2012, 1:05:52 ff. (lecture begins at 56:25) (Hebrew). ^ Gaita, Raimond , ed. (2010). Gaza: Morality, Law & Politics . UWA Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-74258-096-8 . ^ Fisher, David; Wicker, Brian (2010). Just war on terror?: A Christian and Muslim response . Ashgate Publishing. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-4094-0808-6 . ^ Wiegand, Krista (2010). Bombs and ballots: governance by Islamist terrorist and guerrilla groups . Ashgate Publishing. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-7546-7891-5 . ^ \"Studies on the Israeli Aggression on Gaza Strip: Cast Lead Operation / Al-Furqan Battle\" . Al-Zaytuna Center for Studies & Consultations. Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. ... the Cast Lead Operation or al-Furqan Battle as named by Israel and Hamas respectively ... Secondary source, Abdul-Hameed al-Kayyali, Studies on the Israeli Aggression on Gaza Strip: Cast Lead Operation / Al-Furqan Battle , 2009 ^ Maximilian Felsch (2011). Die Hamas: eine pragmatische soziale Bewegung?: Eine transnationale empirische Fallanalyse der Hamas in den besetzten Gebieten, in Jordanien, im Libanon und in Syrien [ Hamas: a pragmatic social movement?: A transnational empirical case analysis of Hamas in the occupied territories, in Jordan, in Lebanon and in Syria ] (in German). Waxmann Verlag. p. 106. ISBN 978-3-8309-2611-5 . Retrieved 24 December 2011 . ^ Al-Mughrabi, Nidal. Israel tightens grip on urban parts of Gaza Archived 9 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ Filiu 2014 , p. 318. ^ Israel and Hamas: Conflict in Gaza (2008–2009) (PDF) , Congressional Research Service, 19 February 2009, pp. 6– 7 ^ McCarthy, Rory (5 November 2008). \"Gaza truce broken as Israeli raid kills six Hamas gunmen\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 26 April 2020 . ^ McCarthy, Rory (5 November 2008). \"Gaza truce broken as Israeli raid kills six Hamas gunmen\" . the Guardian . Retrieved 4 March 2020 . ^ \"Q&A: Gaza conflict\" , BBC 18-01-2009 ^ John Kroll; Torchia; Alfred de Montesquiou (18 January 2009). \"Israeli troops exiting Gaza; Hamas ceases fire\" . The Plain Dealer . Cleveland. ^ Rory McCarthy (16 September 2009). \"Israel rejects war crimes findings of UN Gaza inquiry\" . The Guardian . London . Retrieved 8 May 2010 . ^ Bright, Arthur. \"Israel set to launch 'limited operation' in Gaza\" , The Christian Science Monitor , 26 December 2008. Archived 8 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ \"Report of the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict\" (PDF) . London: United Nations Human Rights Council . Retrieved 15 September 2009 . ^ Cite error: The named reference bbc1309 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference HRW was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Protection of the civilian population\" . Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977 . International Committee of the Red Cross . Retrieved 10 July 2014 . ^ Cite error: The named reference AI_briefing was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Israeli Arsenal was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Rockets land east of Ashdod\" Archived 4 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine Ynetnews, 28 December 2008; \"Rockets reach Beersheba, cause damage\" , Ynetnews, 30 December 2008. ^ Lazaroff, Tovah (30 September 2009). \"Ashkelon rocket victim livid report ignored her plight\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 18 June 2011 . ^ \"Another Miracle: Rocket Hits Empty Synagogue\" . Arutz Sheva . Retrieved 8 May 2010 . ^ \"Hamas, Israel set independent cease-fires\" Archived 2 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine , CNN International; Last Israeli troops 'leave Gaza' , BBC News, 21 January 2009. ^ \"UN condemns 'war crimes' in Gaza\" , BBC News, 15 September 2009. ^ Goldstone, Richard (1 April 2011). \"Reconsidering the Goldstone Report on Israel and War Crimes\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 1 April 2011 . ^ Cite error: The named reference afp1404 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference g2011-04-14 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"A/HRC/21/33 of 21 September 2012\" . Unispal.un.org. Archived from the original on 20 September 2013 . Retrieved 17 August 2014 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Deir Yassin massacre",
   "pageid": 18247176,
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   "lead_before": "1948 mass killing by Zionist militants The Deir Yassin massacre took place on April 9, 1948, when Zionist paramilitaries attacked the village of Deir Yassin near Jerusalem , then part of Mandatory Palestine , killing at least 107 Palestinian Arab villagers, including women and children. The attack was conducted primarily by the Irgun and Lehi , who were supported by the Haganah and Palmach . The massacre was carried out despite the village having agreed to a non-aggression pact. It occurred during the 1947–1948 civil war and was a central component of the Nakba and the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight . On the morning of April 9, Irgun and Lehi forces entered the village from different directions. The Zionist militants massacred Palestinian Arab villagers, including women and children, using firearms and hand grenades, as they emptied the village of its residents house by house. The inexperienced militias encountered resistance from armed villagers and suffered some casualties. The Haganah directly supported the operation, providing ammunition and covering fire, and two Palmach squads entered the village as reinforcement. A number of villagers were taken captive and paraded through West Jerusalem before being executed. In addition to the killing, there was widespread looting and there may have been cases of mutilation and rape. For decades, it was believed that 254 Palestinian Arabs had been killed, although present scholarship puts the death toll at around 110. By the end of the operation, all of the villagers had been expelled and the Haganah took control of the village. In 1949, the village was resettled by Israelis, becoming part of Givat Shaul . News of the killings was widely publicized, sparking terror among Palestinians across the country, frightening many to flee their homes in anticipation of further violence against civilians by advancing Jewish forces. The massacre greatly accelerated the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight and strengthened the resolve of Arab governments to intervene, which they did five weeks later, beginning the 1948 Arab–Israeli war . The Haganah denied its role in the attack and publicly condemned the massacre, blaming it on the Irgun and Lehi, and the Jewish Agency for Palestine (which controlled the Haganah), sent Jordan's King Abdullah a letter of apology, which Abdullah rejected, holding them responsible. Four days after the Deir Yassin massacre, on April 13, a reprisal attack on the Hadassah medical convoy in Jerusalem ended in a massacre killing 78 Jews, most of whom were medical staff. Material in Israeli military archives documenting the Deir Yassin massacre remains classified. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Morris-2005 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Benny Morris, Righteous Victims - \"The most important event during Operation Nahshon was probably the conquest by the IZL and LHI, assisted by the Haganah, of the village of Deir Yassin\" ^ Eugene Rogan (2012). The Arabs: A History – Third Edition . Penguin. p. 330. ISBN 9780718196837 . Palestinians had already begun fleeing the territory earlier in the spring. Between February and March 1948, some 75,000 Arabs had left their homes in the towns that were the center of fighting, such as Jerusalem, Jaffa, and Haifa, for the relative safety of the West Bank or neighboring Arab states. That April, after Dayr Yasin, the stream of refugees became a flood. ^ Morris 2005: \"The village was attacked just before dawn on 9 April. The dissident forces, mustering 130 troops, arrived from two directions\" ^ Pappe 2006: \"As they burst into the village, the Jewish soldiers sprayed the houses with machine-gun fire, killing many of the inhabitants.\" ^ Morris 2005: \"They then advanced slowly from house to house, clearing each objective with grenades and rifle and submachine gun-fire, and sometimes, explosives. Whole families were killed both inside buildings and in the alleyways outside, as they rushed out to try to escape or surrender.\" ^ Morris 2005: The IZL troops, untrained and inexperienced in warfare (apart from terrorism), met stiff resistance and took casualties; their commander, Ben-Zion Cohen, was hit in the leg and evacuated. ^ Morris 2005: \"In the course of the battle, the dissidents ran low on ammunition and asked for and obtained thousands of rounds from the Haganah; Haganah squads also provided covering fire and fired on the refugees fleeing southward, towards “Ein Karim. Two squads of the Palmah (the elite strike force of the Haganah) also arrived on the scene and helped evacuate the wounded and take some of the houses.\" ^ Kana'ana and Zeitawi, The Village of Deir Yassin , Destroyed Village Series, Berzeit University Press, 1988. ^ Yavne to HIS-ID, April 12, 1948, IDFA 5254/49//372 in Morris 2008, p. 127. ^ Morris 1987 , p. 113. ^ Henry Laurens , La Question de Palestine , Fayard Paris 2007 vol.3 p.75 ^ Morris 2005 \"The remaining villagers were then expelled.\" ^ Hogan 2001 \"By Monday, 12 April, the Haganah decided to take full control of Deir Yassin from the Irgun and Lehi.\" ^ Morris 2008, pp. 126–128. ^ Gelber 2006 Archived February 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine , p. 307.*For \"purity of arms\", see Walzer, Michael. \"War and Peace in the Jewish Tradition\", and Nardin, Terry. \"The Comparative Ethics of War and Peace\", in Nardin, Terry (ed.). The Ethics of War and Peace . Princeton University Press, pp. 107–108, 260. ^ Benny Morris, 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War (2008), \"The atrocities were condemned by the Jewish Agency, the Haganah command, and the Yishuv's two chief rabbis, and the agency sent King Abdullah a letter condemning the atrocities and apologizing (which he rebuffed, saying that \"the Jewish Agency stands at the head of all Jewish affairs in Palestine\").\" ^ Siegel-Itzkovich, Judy (April 7, 2008). \"Victims of Hadassah massacre to be memorialized\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on April 7, 2013 . Retrieved December 2, 2013 . ^ Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre, O Jerusalem! , 1972, pp. 284–285, Simon & Schuster, New York; ISBN 0-671-66241-4 ^ Sela, Rona (March 2018). \"The Genealogy of Colonial Plunder and Erasure – Israel's Control over Palestinian Archives\" . Social Semiotics . 28 (2): 201– 229. doi : 10.1080/10350330.2017.1291140 . ISSN 1035-0330 . S2CID 149369385 – via ResearchGate . p.209. Cite error: There are <ref group=fn> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=fn}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "1948 mass killing by Zionist militants The Deir Yassin massacre took place on April 9, 1948, when Zionist paramilitaries attacked the village of Deir Yassin near Jerusalem , then part of Mandatory Palestine , killing at least 107 Palestinian Arab villagers, including women and children. The attack was conducted primarily by the Irgun and Lehi , who were supported by the Haganah and Palmach . The massacre was carried out despite the village having agreed to a non-aggression pact. It occurred during the 1947–1948 civil war and was a central component of the Nakba and the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight . On the morning of April 9, Irgun and Lehi forces entered the village from different directions. The Zionist militants massacred Palestinian Arab villagers, including women and children, using firearms and hand grenades, as they emptied the village of its residents house by house. The inexperienced militias encountered resistance from armed villagers and suffered some casualties. The Haganah directly supported the operation, providing ammunition and covering fire, and two Palmach squads entered the village as reinforcement. A number of villagers were taken captive and paraded through West Jerusalem before being executed. In addition to the killing, there was widespread looting and there may have been cases of mutilation and rape. For decades, it was believed that 254 Palestinian Arabs had been killed, although present scholarship puts the death toll at around 110. By the end of the operation, all of the villagers had been expelled and the Haganah took control of the village. In 1949, the village was resettled by Israelis, becoming part of Givat Shaul . News of the killings was widely publicized, sparking terror among Palestinians across the country, frightening many to flee their homes in anticipation of further violence against civilians by advancing Jewish forces. The massacre greatly accelerated the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight and strengthened the resolve of Arab governments to intervene, which they did five weeks later, beginning the 1948 Arab–Israeli war . The Haganah denied its role in the attack and publicly condemned the massacre, blaming it on the Irgun and Lehi, and the Jewish Agency for Palestine (which controlled the Haganah), sent Jordan's King Abdullah a letter of apology, which Abdullah rejected, holding them responsible. Four days after the Deir Yassin massacre, on April 13, a reprisal attack on the Hadassah medical convoy in Jerusalem ended in a massacre killing 78 Jews, most of whom were medical staff. Material in Israeli military archives documenting the Deir Yassin massacre remains classified. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Morris-2005 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Benny Morris, Righteous Victims - \"The most important event during Operation Nahshon was probably the conquest by the IZL and LHI, assisted by the Haganah, of the village of Deir Yassin\" ^ Eugene Rogan (2012). The Arabs: A History – Third Edition . Penguin. p. 330. ISBN 9780718196837 . Palestinians had already begun fleeing the territory earlier in the spring. Between February and March 1948, some 75,000 Arabs had left their homes in the towns that were the center of fighting, such as Jerusalem, Jaffa, and Haifa, for the relative safety of the West Bank or neighboring Arab states. That April, after Dayr Yasin, the stream of refugees became a flood. ^ Morris 2005: \"The village was attacked just before dawn on 9 April. The dissident forces, mustering 130 troops, arrived from two directions\" ^ Pappe 2006: \"As they burst into the village, the Jewish soldiers sprayed the houses with machine-gun fire, killing many of the inhabitants.\" ^ Morris 2005: \"They then advanced slowly from house to house, clearing each objective with grenades and rifle and submachine gun-fire, and sometimes, explosives. Whole families were killed both inside buildings and in the alleyways outside, as they rushed out to try to escape or surrender.\" ^ Morris 2005: The IZL troops, untrained and inexperienced in warfare (apart from terrorism), met stiff resistance and took casualties; their commander, Ben-Zion Cohen, was hit in the leg and evacuated. ^ Morris 2005: \"In the course of the battle, the dissidents ran low on ammunition and asked for and obtained thousands of rounds from the Haganah; Haganah squads also provided covering fire and fired on the refugees fleeing southward, towards “Ein Karim. Two squads of the Palmah (the elite strike force of the Haganah) also arrived on the scene and helped evacuate the wounded and take some of the houses.\" ^ Kana'ana and Zeitawi, The Village of Deir Yassin , Destroyed Village Series, Berzeit University Press, 1988. ^ Yavne to HIS-ID, April 12, 1948, IDFA 5254/49//372 in Morris 2008, p. 127. ^ Morris 1987 , p. 113. ^ Henry Laurens , La Question de Palestine , Fayard Paris 2007 vol.3 p.75 ^ Morris 2005 \"The remaining villagers were then expelled.\" ^ Hogan 2001 \"By Monday, 12 April, the Haganah decided to take full control of Deir Yassin from the Irgun and Lehi.\" ^ Morris 2008, pp. 126–128. ^ Gelber 2006 Archived February 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine , p. 307.*For \"purity of arms\", see Walzer, Michael. \"War and Peace in the Jewish Tradition\", and Nardin, Terry. \"The Comparative Ethics of War and Peace\", in Nardin, Terry (ed.). The Ethics of War and Peace . Princeton University Press, pp. 107–108, 260. ^ Benny Morris, 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War (2008), \"The atrocities were condemned by the Jewish Agency, the Haganah command, and the Yishuv's two chief rabbis, and the agency sent King Abdullah a letter condemning the atrocities and apologizing (which he rebuffed, saying that \"the Jewish Agency stands at the head of all Jewish affairs in Palestine\").\" ^ Siegel-Itzkovich, Judy (April 7, 2008). \"Victims of Hadassah massacre to be memorialized\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on April 7, 2013 . Retrieved December 2, 2013 . ^ Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre, O Jerusalem! , 1972, pp. 284–285, Simon & Schuster, New York; ISBN 0-671-66241-4 ^ Sela, Rona (March 2018). \"The Genealogy of Colonial Plunder and Erasure – Israel's Control over Palestinian Archives\" . Social Semiotics . 28 (2): 201– 229. doi : 10.1080/10350330.2017.1291140 . ISSN 1035-0330 . S2CID 149369385 – via ResearchGate . p.209. Cite error: There are <ref group=fn> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=fn}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Zionist political violence",
   "pageid": 15533,
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   "lead_before": "Aftermath of the King David Hotel bombing , blown up by the Irgun after Operation Agatha in 1946 Zionists committed a number of acts of political violence in support of establishing and maintaining a Jewish state in Palestine . These actions have been carried out by individuals, paramilitary groups, and the State of Israel and its military forces since the early 20th century against British rule and as part of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict . In the pre-state period (1920s–1940s), Zionist paramilitaries such as the Irgun , Lehi , Haganah and Palmach engaged in violent campaigns against British authorities , Palestinian Arabs , and more moderate Jews to advance their political goals. Targets included security personnel, government figures, civilians, and infrastructure. After Israel's establishment in 1948, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and other state security forces continued to employ violence against Palestinian and neighboring Arab populations during the 1948 war (known by Palestinians as the Nakba , catastrophe), subsequent Arab-Israeli wars , and the military occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . Later acts of Zionist violence have ranged from the government's use of force to suppress Palestinian unrest (such as during the intifadas from 1987 to 1993 and 2000 to 2005), to attacks perpetrated by Israeli settlers and right-wing extremists against Palestinian civilians, property and holy sites. In an act of intra-Jewish political violence, former Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated in 1995 by Yigal Amir who opposed Rabin's peace initiatives and territorial concessions to the Palestinians. The Israeli military has also conducted large-scale assaults in the occupied territories and neighbouring states including Lebanon , resulting in widespread destruction and civilian casualties. Human and Palestinian rights organisations have accused Israel of state terrorism , war crimes , and disproportionate use of force against Palestinians. Israel defends its actions as necessary to preserve the security of the Jewish state and its citizens in the face of Palestinian political violence and regional threats.",
   "lead_after": "Aftermath of the King David Hotel bombing , blown up by the Irgun after Operation Agatha in 1946 Zionists committed a number of acts of political violence in support of establishing and maintaining a Jewish state in Palestine . These actions have been carried out by individuals, paramilitary groups, and the State of Israel and its military forces since the early 20th century against British rule and as part of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict . In the pre-state period (1920s–1940s), Zionist paramilitaries such as the Irgun , Lehi , Haganah and Palmach engaged in violent campaigns against British authorities , Palestinian Arabs , and more moderate Jews to advance their political goals. Targets included security personnel, government figures, civilians, and infrastructure. After Israel's establishment in 1948, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and other state security forces continued to employ violence against Palestinian and neighboring Arab populations during the 1948 war (known by Palestinians as the Nakba , catastrophe), subsequent Arab-Israeli wars , and the military occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . Later acts of Zionist violence have ranged from the government's use of force to suppress Palestinian unrest (such as during the intifadas from 1987 to 1993 and 2000 to 2005), to attacks perpetrated by Israeli settlers and right-wing extremists against Palestinian civilians, property and holy sites. In an act of intra-Jewish political violence, former Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated in 1995 by Yigal Amir who opposed Rabin's peace initiatives and territorial concessions to the Palestinians. The Israeli military has also conducted large-scale assaults in the occupied territories and neighbouring states including Lebanon , resulting in widespread destruction and civilian casualties. Human and Palestinian rights organisations have accused Israel of state terrorism , war crimes , and disproportionate use of force against Palestinians. Israel defends its actions as necessary to preserve the security of the Jewish state and its citizens in the face of Palestinian political violence and regional threats."
  },
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   "title": "Kahanism",
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   "lead_before": "Ideology based on Meir Kahane Flag of Kach, used by Kahanists Kahanism ( Hebrew: [ka.haˈn.izm] ; Hebrew : כַּהַנִּיזְם ) is a religious Zionist ideology based on the views of Rabbi Meir Kahane , founder of the Jewish Defense League and the Israeli political party Kach . Kahane believed that most Arabs living in Israel are the enemies of Jews and Israel itself, and that a Jewish , Halakhic state , in which non-Jews would have no voting rights , should be created. The Kach party has been banned by the Israeli government. In 2004, the United States Department of State designated it a Foreign Terrorist Organization . In 2022, it was removed from the US terror blacklist due to \"insufficient evidence\" of the group's ongoing activity, but it remains a Specially Designated Global Terrorist entity. The Kahanist Otzma Yehudit party won six seats in the 2022 Israeli legislative election and is a member of the thirty-seventh government of Israel , save for a withdrawal between 21 January and 19 March 2025 because the government had agreed to the January 2025 ceasefire in the Gaza war . The party, and the Kahanist movement as a whole, have been described as espousing Jewish supremacy and fascism . ^ Cite error: The named reference MAC was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Ideology based on Meir Kahane Flag of Kach, used by Kahanists Kahanism ( Hebrew: [ka.haˈn.izm] ; Hebrew : כַּהַנִּיזְם ) is a religious Zionist ideology based on the views of Rabbi Meir Kahane , founder of the Jewish Defense League and the Israeli political party Kach . Kahane believed that most Arabs living in Israel are the enemies of Jews and Israel itself, and that a Jewish , Halakhic state , in which non-Jews would have no voting rights , should be created. The Kach party has been banned by the Israeli government. In 2004, the United States Department of State designated it a Foreign Terrorist Organization . In 2022, it was removed from the US terror blacklist due to \"insufficient evidence\" of the group's ongoing activity, but it remains a Specially Designated Global Terrorist entity. The Kahanist Otzma Yehudit party won six seats in the 2022 Israeli legislative election and is a member of the thirty-seventh government of Israel , save for a withdrawal between 21 January and 19 March 2025 because the government had agreed to the January 2025 ceasefire in the Gaza war . The party, and the Kahanist movement as a whole, have been described as espousing Jewish supremacy and fascism . ^ Cite error: The named reference MAC was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Ariel Sharon",
   "pageid": 2944,
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   "lead_before": "Prime Minister of Israel from 2001 to 2006 For the Israeli architect, see Arieh Sharon . Ariel \" Arik \" Sharon ( Hebrew : אֲרִיאֵל (אָרִיק) שָׁרוֹן , [aʁiˈ(ʔ)el ʃaˈʁon] ; 26 February 1928 – 11 January 2014) was an Israeli general and politician who served as the prime minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006. Born in Kfar Malal in Mandatory Palestine to Russian Jewish immigrants, he rose in the ranks of the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948, participating in the 1948 Palestine war as platoon commander of the Alexandroni Brigade and taking part in several battles. Sharon became an instrumental figure in the creation of Unit 101 and the reprisal operations , including the 1953 Qibya massacre , as well as in the 1956 Suez Crisis , the Six-Day War of 1967, the War of Attrition , and the Yom-Kippur War of 1973. Yitzhak Rabin called Sharon \"the greatest field commander in our history\". Upon leaving the military, Sharon entered politics, joining the Likud party, and served in a number of ministerial posts in Likud-led governments in 1977–92 and 1996–99. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War . An official enquiry found that he bore \"personal responsibility for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge\" before the Sabra and Shatila massacre of Palestinian refugees, for which he became known as the \"Butcher of Beirut\" among Arabs. He was subsequently removed as defense minister. From the 1970s through to the 1990s, Sharon championed construction of Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip . He became the leader of the Likud in 1999, and in 2000, amid campaigning for the 2001 prime ministerial election , made a controversial visit to the Al-Aqsa complex on the Temple Mount , triggering the Second Intifada . He subsequently defeated Ehud Barak in the election and served as Israel's prime minister from 2001 to 2006. As Prime Minister, Sharon orchestrated the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier in 2002–2003 and Israel's unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2005. Facing stiff opposition to the latter policy within the Likud, in November 2005 he left Likud to form a new party, Kadima . He had been expected to win the next election and was widely interpreted as planning on \"clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank\", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. Following a stroke on 4 January 2006, Sharon remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in 2014. Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure in Middle Eastern history. Most Israelis revere Sharon as a war hero and statesman, whereas Palestinians and Human Rights Watch have criticized him as a war criminal, with the latter lamenting that he was never held accountable. ^ Henry Kamm (13 June 1982). \"Man in the News; Laurels for Israeli Warrior\" . The New York Times . ^ \"New Israeli Cabinet Approved by Parliament\" . Associated Press . 11 June 1990. ^ Lis, Jonathan (11 January 2014). \"Ariel Sharon, former Israeli prime minister, dies at 85\" . Haaretz . National Israel News. Archived from the original on 11 January 2014 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . ^ \"Israel's Man of War\", Michael Kramer, New York , pp. 19–24, 9 August 1982: \"the \"greatest field commander in our history,\" says Yitzak Rabin\" ^ Cite error: The named reference butcher was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (6 January 2006). \"To Arabs in the Street, Sharon's a Butcher; Some Others Show a Kind of Respect\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 13 June 2018 . ^ Rees, Matt (22 October 2011). \"Ariel Sharon's fascinating appetite\" . Salon . Archived from the original on 18 November 2012. ^ Elhanan Miller (19 February 2013). \"Sharon was about to leave two-thirds of the West Bank\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. ^ Derek S. Reveron, Jeffrey Stevenson Murer (2013). Flashpoints in the War on Terrorism . Routledge . p. 9. ^ \"Scientists say comatose former Israeli leader Ariel Sharon shows 'robust' brain activity\" . Fox News . 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013 . Retrieved 12 January 2014 . ^ Soffer, Ari (11 January 2014). \"Ariel Sharon Passes Away, Aged 85\" . Arutz Sheva . Archived from the original on 11 January 2014 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . ^ Yolande Knell (11 January 2014). \"Israel's ex-PM Ariel Sharon dies, aged 85\" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 11 January 2014 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . ^ \"Ariel Sharon: Hero or butcher? Five things to know\" . CNN. 11 January 2014. ^ \"Israel: Ariel Sharon's Troubling Legacy\" . Human Rights Watch. 11 January 2014.",
   "lead_after": "Prime Minister of Israel from 2001 to 2006 For the Israeli architect, see Arieh Sharon . Ariel \" Arik \" Sharon ( Hebrew : אֲרִיאֵל (אָרִיק) שָׁרוֹן , [aʁiˈ(ʔ)el ʃaˈʁon] ; 26 February 1928 – 11 January 2014) was an Israeli general and politician who served as the prime minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006. Born in Kfar Malal in Mandatory Palestine to Russian Jewish immigrants, he rose in the ranks of the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948, participating in the 1948 Palestine war as platoon commander of the Alexandroni Brigade and taking part in several battles. Sharon became an instrumental figure in the creation of Unit 101 and the reprisal operations , including the 1953 Qibya massacre , as well as in the 1956 Suez Crisis , the Six-Day War of 1967, the War of Attrition , and the Yom-Kippur War of 1973. Yitzhak Rabin called Sharon \"the greatest field commander in our history\". Upon leaving the military, Sharon entered politics, joining the Likud party, and served in a number of ministerial posts in Likud-led governments in 1977–92 and 1996–99. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War . An official enquiry found that he bore \"personal responsibility for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge\" before the Sabra and Shatila massacre of Palestinian refugees, for which he became known as the \"Butcher of Beirut\" among Arabs. He was subsequently removed as defense minister. From the 1970s through to the 1990s, Sharon championed construction of Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip . He became the leader of the Likud in 1999, and in 2000, amid campaigning for the 2001 prime ministerial election , made a controversial visit to the Al-Aqsa complex on the Temple Mount , triggering the Second Intifada . He subsequently defeated Ehud Barak in the election and served as Israel's prime minister from 2001 to 2006. As Prime Minister, Sharon orchestrated the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier in 2002–2003 and Israel's unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2005. Facing stiff opposition to the latter policy within the Likud, in November 2005 he left Likud to form a new party, Kadima . He had been expected to win the next election and was widely interpreted as planning on \"clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank\", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. Following a stroke on 4 January 2006, Sharon remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in 2014. Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure in Middle Eastern history. Most Israelis revere Sharon as a war hero and statesman, whereas Palestinians and Human Rights Watch have criticized him as a war criminal, with the latter lamenting that he was never held accountable. ^ Henry Kamm (13 June 1982). \"Man in the News; Laurels for Israeli Warrior\" . The New York Times . ^ \"New Israeli Cabinet Approved by Parliament\" . Associated Press . 11 June 1990. ^ Lis, Jonathan (11 January 2014). \"Ariel Sharon, former Israeli prime minister, dies at 85\" . Haaretz . National Israel News. Archived from the original on 11 January 2014 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . ^ \"Israel's Man of War\", Michael Kramer, New York , pp. 19–24, 9 August 1982: \"the \"greatest field commander in our history,\" says Yitzak Rabin\" ^ Cite error: The named reference butcher was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (6 January 2006). \"To Arabs in the Street, Sharon's a Butcher; Some Others Show a Kind of Respect\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 13 June 2018 . ^ Rees, Matt (22 October 2011). \"Ariel Sharon's fascinating appetite\" . Salon . Archived from the original on 18 November 2012. ^ Elhanan Miller (19 February 2013). \"Sharon was about to leave two-thirds of the West Bank\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 21 February 2013. ^ Derek S. Reveron, Jeffrey Stevenson Murer (2013). Flashpoints in the War on Terrorism . Routledge . p. 9. ^ \"Scientists say comatose former Israeli leader Ariel Sharon shows 'robust' brain activity\" . Fox News . 28 January 2013. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013 . Retrieved 12 January 2014 . ^ Soffer, Ari (11 January 2014). \"Ariel Sharon Passes Away, Aged 85\" . Arutz Sheva . Archived from the original on 11 January 2014 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . ^ Yolande Knell (11 January 2014). \"Israel's ex-PM Ariel Sharon dies, aged 85\" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 11 January 2014 . Retrieved 11 January 2014 . ^ \"Ariel Sharon: Hero or butcher? Five things to know\" . CNN. 11 January 2014. ^ \"Israel: Ariel Sharon's Troubling Legacy\" . Human Rights Watch. 11 January 2014."
  },
  {
   "title": "Irgun",
   "pageid": 15406,
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   "lead_before": "Zionist paramilitary organization (1931–1948) The Irgun ( Hebrew : ארגון ), officially the National Military Organization in the Land of Israel , often abbreviated as Etzel or IZL ( אצ״ל ), was a Zionist paramilitary organization that operated in Mandatory Palestine between 1931 and 1948. It was an offshoot of the older and larger Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah . The Irgun policy was based on what was then called Revisionist Zionism founded by Ze'ev Jabotinsky . Two of the most infamous operations for which the Irgun were known; the bombing of the British administrative headquarters for Mandatory Palestine in Jerusalem on 22 July 1946 and the Deir Yassin massacre that killed at least 107 Palestinian Arab villagers, including women and children, carried out with Lehi on 9 April 1948. The organization committed acts of terrorism against Palestinian Arabs , as well as against the British authorities, who were regarded as illegal occupiers. In particular the Irgun was described as a terrorist organization by the United Nations , British, and United States governments; in media such as The New York Times newspaper; as well as by the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry , the 1946 Zionist Congress and the Jewish Agency . Hannah Arendt and Albert Einstein , in a letter to The New York Times in 1948, compared Irgun and its successor Herut party to \"Nazi and Fascist parties\" and described it as a \"terrorist, right wing, chauvinist organization\". Following the establishment of the State of Israel during the 1948 Palestine war , the Irgun began to be absorbed into the newly created Israel Defense Forces . Conflict between the Irgun and the IDF escalated into the 1948 Altalena affair , and the Irgun formally disbanded on 12 January 1949. The Irgun was a political predecessor to Israel's right-wing Herut (or \"Freedom\") party, which led to today's Likud party. Likud has led or been part of most Israeli governments since 1977. ^ Spencer C. Tucker (May 12, 2008). Priscilla Mary Roberts; Spencer C. Tucker (eds.). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO . p. 494. The Irgun Tsvai Leumi (National Military Organization) was a right-wing paramilitary Zionist underground movement in Palestine from 1931 to 1948. ^ Jeffrey Richelson (1988). Foreign Intelligence Organizations . p. 192. Among the rival organizations subject to SHAI surveillance were the extreme right-wing nationalist group Irgun Zevai Leumi and a breakaway movement from Irgun the Stern Gang. ^ Colin Shindler (December 31, 1995). The Land Beyond Promise: Power, Politics and Ideology from Begin to Netanyahu . Bloomsbury Academic. p. 19. ^ The Sarmatian Review: Volumes 22-25 . Houston Circle of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America. 2002. p. 878. Neither can one find anything about the activities of the far-right Jewish Military Union (Irgun Zwoi Leumi / Żydowski Związek Wojskowy). ^ Daniel Cil Brecher (2007). A Stranger in the Land: Jewish Identity Beyond Nationalism . Other Press . pp. 270– 275. On January 6, 1948, members of Menachem Begin's extreme right Irgun militia blew up the city hall of Jaffa with a car bomb. [...] On the morning of April 9, the town on the western edge of Jerusalem was attacked bu unite of the two extreme right-wing Jewish militias, Irgun and Lehi. ^ ^ Jacob Shavit , Jabotinsky and the Revisionist Movement 1925–1948 p. 97 Routledge 1988 ISBN 978-0-7146-3325-1 ^ Howard Sachar : A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time , pp. 265–266 ^ \"Irgun Zvai Leumi | Jewish right-wing underground movement\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 2016-01-02 . ^ Cite error: The named reference SshmidtFCPRIOT was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Bell, J. Bowyer (1979). Terror out of Zion : Irgun Zvai Leumi, LEHI, and the Palestine underground, 1929-1949 . Dublin: Academy Press. ISBN 978-0-906187-11-1 . ^ Whittaker, David (2012). The Terrorism Reader (4th ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0415687317 . ^ Kushner, Harvey W. (2002). Encyclopedia of Terrorism . Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. p. 181. ISBN 145226550X . ^ Pope Brewer, Sam. Irgun Bomb Kills 11 Arabs, 2 Britons . New York Times . December 30, 1947. ^ Irgun's Hand Seen in Alps Rail Blast . New York Times . August 16, 1947. ^ W. Khalidi, 1971, 'From Haven to Conquest', p. 598 ^ Terry, Janice (2008). Encyclopedia of world history Vol 5 pg 20 . Infobase Publishing. ^ \"Jewish Terrorism and Jewish Resistance\". The Jewish Plan for Palestine—Memoranda and Statements presented by The Jewish Agency for Palestine to the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine . The Jewish Agency for Palestine, Jerusalem. 1947. pp. 20– 26. ^ \"Major Political Developments\". The Jewish Plan for Palestine—Memoranda and Statements presented by The Jewish Agency for Palestine to the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine . The Jewish Agency for Palestine, Jerusalem. 1947. p. 32. ^ Rowe, David E. ; Schulmann, Robert J., eds. (2007). Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb . Princeton University Press. p. 350. ISBN 978-0-691-12094-2 . ^ Eisenstadt, S.N. (1985). The Transformation of Israeli Society . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 173– 174. ISBN 0-297-78423-4 . One of the main developments in the initial period of the State was the growth of the Herut party.... It developed from the older Revisionist groups, the 'terrorist' groups of the Irgun Zvai Leumi and members of the Revisionist party ... in 1965 Herut founded, together with the great part of the Liberals, a parliamentary bloc ... in 1973, with the addition of other small groups, it became transformed into Likud Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Zionist paramilitary organization (1931–1948) The Irgun ( Hebrew : ארגון ), officially the National Military Organization in the Land of Israel , often abbreviated as Etzel ( אצ״ל ) or IZL , was a Zionist paramilitary organization that operated in Mandatory Palestine between 1931 and 1948. It was an offshoot of the older and larger Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah . The Irgun policy was based on Revisionist Zionism , founded by Ze'ev Jabotinsky . Two of the most infamous operations for which the Irgun were known; the bombing of the British administrative headquarters for Mandatory Palestine in Jerusalem on 22 July 1946 and the Deir Yassin massacre , carried out with Lehi on 9 April 1948. The organization committed acts of terrorism against Palestinian Arabs , as well as against the British authorities, who were regarded as illegal occupiers. In particular the Irgun was described as a terrorist organization by the United Nations , British, and United States governments; in media such as The New York Times newspaper; as well as by the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry , the 1946 Zionist Congress and the Jewish Agency . Hannah Arendt and Albert Einstein , in a letter to The New York Times in 1948, compared Irgun and its successor Herut party to \"Nazi and Fascist parties\" and described it as a \"terrorist, right wing, chauvinist organization\". Following the establishment of the State of Israel during the 1948 Palestine war , the Irgun began to be absorbed into the newly created Israel Defense Forces . Conflict between the Irgun and the IDF escalated into the 1948 Altalena Affair , and the Irgun formally disbanded on 12 January 1949. The Irgun was a political predecessor to Israel's right-wing Herut (\"Freedom\") party, which led to today's Likud party. Likud has led or been part of most Israeli governments since 1977. ^ Spencer C. Tucker (May 12, 2008). Priscilla Mary Roberts; Spencer C. Tucker (eds.). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO . p. 494. The Irgun Tsvai Leumi (National Military Organization) was a right-wing paramilitary Zionist underground movement in Palestine from 1931 to 1948. ^ Jeffrey Richelson (1988). Foreign Intelligence Organizations . p. 192. Among the rival organizations subject to SHAI surveillance were the extreme right-wing nationalist group Irgun Zevai Leumi and a breakaway movement from Irgun the Stern Gang. ^ Colin Shindler (December 31, 1995). The Land Beyond Promise: Power, Politics and Ideology from Begin to Netanyahu . Bloomsbury Academic. p. 19. ^ The Sarmatian Review: Volumes 22-25 . Houston Circle of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America. 2002. p. 878. Neither can one find anything about the activities of the far-right Jewish Military Union (Irgun Zwoi Leumi / Żydowski Związek Wojskowy). ^ Daniel Cil Brecher (2007). A Stranger in the Land: Jewish Identity Beyond Nationalism . Other Press . pp. 270– 275. On January 6, 1948, members of Menachem Begin's extreme right Irgun militia blew up the city hall of Jaffa with a car bomb. [...] On the morning of April 9, the town on the western edge of Jerusalem was attacked bu unite of the two extreme right-wing Jewish militias, Irgun and Lehi. ^ ^ Jacob Shavit , Jabotinsky and the Revisionist Movement 1925–1948 p. 97 Routledge 1988 ISBN 978-0-7146-3325-1 ^ Howard Sachar : A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time , pp. 265–266 ^ \"Irgun Zvai Leumi | Jewish right-wing underground movement\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 2016-01-02 . ^ Cite error: The named reference SshmidtFCPRIOT was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Bell, J. Bowyer (1979). Terror out of Zion : Irgun Zvai Leumi, LEHI, and the Palestine underground, 1929-1949 . Dublin: Academy Press. ISBN 978-0-906187-11-1 . ^ Whittaker, David (2012). The Terrorism Reader (4th ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0415687317 . ^ Kushner, Harvey W. (2002). Encyclopedia of Terrorism . Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. p. 181. ISBN 145226550X . ^ Pope Brewer, Sam. Irgun Bomb Kills 11 Arabs, 2 Britons . New York Times . December 30, 1947. ^ Irgun's Hand Seen in Alps Rail Blast . New York Times . August 16, 1947. ^ W. Khalidi, 1971, 'From Haven to Conquest', p. 598 ^ Terry, Janice (2008). Encyclopedia of world history Vol 5 pg 20 . Infobase Publishing. ^ \"Jewish Terrorism and Jewish Resistance\". The Jewish Plan for Palestine—Memoranda and Statements presented by The Jewish Agency for Palestine to the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine . The Jewish Agency for Palestine, Jerusalem. 1947. pp. 20– 26. ^ \"Major Political Developments\". The Jewish Plan for Palestine—Memoranda and Statements presented by The Jewish Agency for Palestine to the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine . The Jewish Agency for Palestine, Jerusalem. 1947. p. 32. ^ Rowe, David E. ; Schulmann, Robert J., eds. (2007). Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb . Princeton University Press. p. 350. ISBN 978-0-691-12094-2 . ^ Eisenstadt, S.N. (1985). The Transformation of Israeli Society . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 173– 174. ISBN 0-297-78423-4 . One of the main developments in the initial period of the State was the growth of the Herut party.... It developed from the older Revisionist groups, the 'terrorist' groups of the Irgun Zvai Leumi and members of the Revisionist party ... in 1965 Herut founded, together with the great part of the Liberals, a parliamentary bloc ... in 1973, with the addition of other small groups, it became transformed into Likud Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Great March of Return",
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   "lead_before": "Redirect to: 2018–2019 Gaza border protests",
   "lead_after": "Redirect to: 2018–2019 Gaza border protests From an alternative name : This is a redirect from a title that is another name or identity such as an alter ego, a nickname, or a synonym of the target, or of a name associated with the target. This redirect leads to the title in accordance with the naming conventions for common names to aid searches and writing. It is not necessary to replace these redirected links with a piped link . If this redirect is an incorrect name for the target, then {{ R from incorrect name }} should be used instead."
  },
  {
   "title": "Jewish exodus from the Muslim world",
   "pageid": 143149,
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   "lead_before": "Approximately 900,000 Jews migrated, fled, or were expelled from Muslim-majority countries throughout Africa and Asia in the 20th century, primarily as a consequence of the establishment of the State of Israel . Large-scale migrations were also organized, sponsored, and facilitated by Zionist organizations such as Mossad LeAliyah Bet , the Jewish Agency , and the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society . The mass movement mainly transpired from 1948 to the early 1970s, with one final exodus of Iranian Jews occurring shortly after the Islamic Revolution in 1979–1980. An estimated 650,000 (72%) of these Jews resettled in Israel . A number of small-scale Jewish migrations began across the Middle East in the early 20th century, with the only substantial aliyot (Jewish immigrations to the Land of Israel ) coming from Yemen and Syria . Few Jews from Muslim countries immigrated during the British Mandate for Palestine . Prior to Israel's independence in 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living on lands that now make up the Arab world . Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French- and Italian-controlled regions of North Africa , 15–20% lived in the Kingdom of Iraq , approximately 10% lived in the Kingdom of Egypt , and approximately 7% lived in the Aden Colony , Aden Protectorate and the Kingdom of Yemen . A further 200,000 Jews lived in the Imperial State of Iran and the Republic of Turkey . The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily from Iraq, Yemen, and Libya. In these cases, over 90% of the Jewish population left, leaving their assets and properties behind. Between 1948 and 1951, 250,000 Jews immigrated to Israel from Arab countries. In response, the Israeli government implemented policies to accommodate 600,000 immigrants over four years, doubling the country's Jewish population. Reactions in the Knesset were mixed; in addition to some Israeli officials, there were those within the Jewish Agency who opposed promoting a large-scale emigration movement among Jews whose lives were not in immediate danger. Later waves peaked at different times in different regions over the subsequent decades. The exodus from Egypt peaked in 1956, following the Suez Crisis ; emigrations from other North African countries peaked in the 1960s. Lebanon 's Jewish population temporarily increased due to an influx of Jews from other Arab countries, before it dwindled by the mid-1970s. 600,000 Jews from Arab and Muslim countries had relocated to Israel by 1972, while another 300,000 migrated to France , the United States and Canada . Today, the descendants of Jews who immigrated to Israel from other Middle Eastern lands (known as Mizrahi Jews and Sephardic Jews ) constitute more than half of all Israelis. The Jewish Agency for Israel estimated that the total number of Jews in Arab and Muslim countries in 2023 was 27,000, with Turkey having 14,200 Jewish residents and Iran having 9,100. The reasons for the exoduses include: pull factors such as the desire to fulfill Zionism , better economic prospects and security, and the Israeli government's \" One Million Plan \" to accommodate Jewish immigrants from Arab- and Muslim-majority countries; and push factors such as violent and other forms of antisemitism in the Arab world , political instability, poverty, and expulsion. The history of the exodus has been politicized, given its proposed relevance to the historical narrative of the Arab–Israeli conflict . Those who view the Jewish exodus as analogous to the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight generally emphasize the push factors and consider those who left to have been refugees, while those who oppose that view generally emphasize the pull factors and consider the Jews to have been willing immigrants. ^ Beker 2005 , p. 4. ^ Simon, Laskier & Reguer 2003 , p. 327: \"Before the 1940s only two communities, Yemen and Syria, made substantial aliyah.\" ^ Picard 2018 , p. 4: \"In fact, few Jews from Muslim countries immigrated to Palestine during the years of the British Mandate. ^ Aharoni, Ada (2003). \"The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries\" . Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice . 15 (1). Routledge : 53– 60. doi : 10.1080/1040265032000059742 . ISSN 1040-2659 . S2CID 145345386 . ^ Cite error: The named reference colin63 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hakohen, Devorah (2003). Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After . Syracuse University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8156-2969-6 . After independence, the government presented the Knesset with a plan to double the Jewish population within four years. This meant bringing in 600,000 immigrants in a four-year period, or 150,000 per year. Absorbing 150,000 newcomers annually under the trying conditions facing the new state was a heavy burden indeed. Opponents in the Jewish Agency and the government of mass immigration argued that there was no justification for organizing large-scale emigration among Jews whose lives were not in danger, particularly when the desire and motivation were not their own. ^ Schwartz, Adi (4 January 2008). \"All I Wanted was Justice\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 20 March 2016 . Retrieved 14 November 2010 . ^ Malka Hillel Shulewitz, The Forgotten Millions: The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands , Continuum 2001, pp. 139 and 155. ^ Ada Aharoni \"The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries Archived 13 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine , Historical Society of Jews from Egypt website. Accessed 1 February 2009. ^ Cite error: The named reference Blum1987p69 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla (12 May 2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2 – via Google Books. ^ \"Jewish Population Rises to 15.7 Million Worldwide in 2023\" , Jewish Agency for Israel , September 15, 2023. Accessed November 30, 2025. \"About 27,000 Jews live in Arab and Muslim countries, of which 14,200 live in Turkey, 9,100 in Iran, 2,100 in Morocco, 1,000 in Tunisia, and 500 in the Emirates.\" ^ Picard 2018 , p. 4-5: \"There were two major changes in Zionist aliya policy in the first half of the 1940s. The first was the replacement of the preference for selective aliya by support for mass aliya. In 1944, Ben-Gurion called for bringing a million Jews to Palestine, even if public soup kitchens had to be set up to feed them... The second change was the decision to extend the aliya net to include the Jews of Muslim countries. It had become clear that they, too, would be needed to create a Jewish majority in Palestine... Independence and the removal of the British restrictions on Jewish immigration made it possible to implement these policy changes. The large-scale aliya of the next few years was the product of these two changes: it was mass aliya and it included Jews from Muslim countries.\" ^ Parfitt 1996 , p. 285: \"... economic straits as their traditional role was whittled away, famine, disease, growing political persecution and increased public hostility, the state of anarchy after the murder of Yahya , a desire to be reunited with family members, incitement and encouragement to leave from [Zionist agents who] played on their religious sensibilities, promises that their passage would be paid to Israel and that their material difficulties would be cared for by the Jewish state, a sense that the Land of Israel was a veritable Eldorado, a sense of history being fulfilled, a fear of missing the boat, a sense that living wretchedly as dhimmis in an Islamic state was no longer God-ordained, a sense that as a people they had been flayed by history long enough: all these played a role. ... Purely religious, messianic sentiment too, had its part but by and large this has been overemphasised.\" ^ Yehuda, Shenhav (15 August 2003). \"Hitching a Ride on the Magic Carpet\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 8 August 2012 . Retrieved 11 May 2011 . Any reasonable person, Zionist or non-Zionist, must acknowledge that the analogy drawn between Palestinians and Mizrahi Jews is unfounded. Palestinian refugees did not want to leave Palestine. Many Palestinian communities were destroyed in 1948, and some 700 000 Palestinians were expelled, or fled, from the borders of historic Palestine. Those who left did not do so of their own volition. In contrast, Jews from Arab lands came to this country under the initiative of the State of Israel and Jewish organizations. Some came of their own free will; others arrived against their will. Some lived comfortably and securely in Arab lands; others suffered from fear and oppression. ^ Yehouda Shenhav 'Arab Jews, population Exchange, and the Palestinian Right of Return,' in Ann M. Lesch, Ian S. Lustick (eds.), Exile and Return: Predicaments of Palestinians and Jews, University of Pennsylvania Press , 2008, ISBN 978-0-812-22052-0 , pp. 225–244, p. 225: \"In July 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton announced that an agreement had been reached at the Camp David summit to recognize the Jews from Arab countries as \"refugees\" and that an international fund would provide compensation for the property they left behind when they immigrated to Israel during the 1950s. The immediate political significance of this declaration was to help Israel's prime minister at the time, Ehud Barak, to mobilize Shas's voters (the majority of whom are of Arab descent) in support of the peace process. However, the underlying logic – defining the Jews from Arab countries as refugees-responded to a deeper political theory that was developed in Israel in the 1950s to counterbalance the collective rights of the Palestinian refugees. It is not surprising, therefore, that Palestinians around the world reacted with dismay and rage to this announcement. In its contemporary garb, this \"population exchange\" theory was proposed to abdicate Israel's responsibility for the expulsion of Palestinians in 1948 and to alleviate demands to compensate the Palestinian refugees, and serve as a bargaining chip against their right of return. For all practical purposes, the population exchange initiative was used to legitimate Israel's wrongdoing with regard to the transfer of the Palestinian refugees in 1948.\" ^ Mendes, Philip (2002). The Forgotten Refugees: the causes of the post-1948 Jewish Exodus from Arab Countries . 14th Jewish Studies Conference Melbourne March 2002. – \"The Forgotten Refugees\" . Retrieved 12 June 2007 – via MEFacts.com. {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) – \"The Forgotten Refugees\" . Archived from the original on 22 October 2012 . Retrieved 21 October 2010 – via Palestine Remembered.",
   "lead_after": "Approximately 900,000 Jews migrated, fled, or were expelled from Muslim-majority countries throughout Africa and Asia in the 20th century, primarily as a consequence of the establishment of the State of Israel . Large-scale migrations were also organized, sponsored, and facilitated by Zionist organizations such as Mossad LeAliyah Bet , the Jewish Agency , and the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society . The mass movement mainly transpired from 1948 to the early 1970s, with one final exodus of Iranian Jews occurring shortly after the Islamic Revolution in 1979–1980. An estimated 650,000 (72%) of these Jews resettled in Israel . A number of small-scale Jewish migrations began across the Middle East in the early 20th century, with the only substantial aliyot (Jewish immigrations to the Land of Israel ) coming from Yemen and Syria . Few Jews from Muslim countries immigrated during the British Mandate for Palestine . Prior to Israel's independence in 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living on lands that now make up the Arab world . Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French- and Italian-controlled regions of North Africa , 15–20% lived in the Kingdom of Iraq , approximately 10% lived in the Kingdom of Egypt , and approximately 7% lived in the Aden Colony , Aden Protectorate and the Kingdom of Yemen . A further 200,000 Jews lived in the Imperial State of Iran and the Republic of Turkey . The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily from Iraq, Yemen, and Libya. In these cases, over 90% of the Jewish population left, leaving their assets and properties behind. Between 1948 and 1951, 250,000 Jews immigrated to Israel from Arab countries. In response, the Israeli government implemented policies to accommodate 600,000 immigrants over four years, doubling the country's Jewish population. Reactions in the Knesset were mixed; in addition to some Israeli officials, there were those within the Jewish Agency who opposed promoting a large-scale emigration movement among Jews whose lives were not in immediate danger. Later waves peaked at different times in different regions over the subsequent decades. The exodus from Egypt peaked in 1956, following the Suez Crisis ; emigrations from other North African countries peaked in the 1960s. Lebanon 's Jewish population temporarily increased due to an influx of Jews from other Arab countries, before it dwindled by the mid-1970s. 600,000 Jews from Arab and Muslim countries had relocated to Israel by 1972, while another 300,000 migrated to France , the United States and Canada . Today, the descendants of Jews who immigrated to Israel from other Middle Eastern lands (known as Mizrahi Jews and Sephardic Jews ) constitute more than half of all Israelis. The Jewish Agency for Israel estimated that the total number of Jews in Arab and Muslim countries in 2023 was 27,000, with Turkey having 14,200 Jewish residents and Iran having 9,100. The reasons for the exoduses include: pull factors such as the desire to fulfill Zionism , better economic prospects and security, and the Israeli government's \" One Million Plan \" to accommodate Jewish immigrants from Arab- and Muslim-majority countries; and push factors such as violent and other forms of antisemitism in the Arab world , political instability, poverty, and expulsion. The history of the exodus has been politicized, given its proposed relevance to the historical narrative of the Arab–Israeli conflict . Those who view the Jewish exodus as analogous to the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight generally emphasize the push factors and consider those who left to have been refugees, while those who oppose that view generally emphasize the pull factors and consider the Jews to have been willing emigrants. ^ Beker 2005 , p. 4. ^ Simon, Laskier & Reguer 2003 , p. 327: \"Before the 1940s only two communities, Yemen and Syria, made substantial aliyah.\" ^ Picard 2018 , p. 4: \"In fact, few Jews from Muslim countries immigrated to Palestine during the years of the British Mandate. ^ Aharoni, Ada (2003). \"The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries\" . Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice . 15 (1). Routledge : 53– 60. doi : 10.1080/1040265032000059742 . ISSN 1040-2659 . S2CID 145345386 . ^ Cite error: The named reference colin63 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hakohen, Devorah (2003). Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After . Syracuse University Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8156-2969-6 . After independence, the government presented the Knesset with a plan to double the Jewish population within four years. This meant bringing in 600,000 immigrants in a four-year period, or 150,000 per year. Absorbing 150,000 newcomers annually under the trying conditions facing the new state was a heavy burden indeed. Opponents in the Jewish Agency and the government of mass immigration argued that there was no justification for organizing large-scale emigration among Jews whose lives were not in danger, particularly when the desire and motivation were not their own. ^ Schwartz, Adi (4 January 2008). \"All I Wanted was Justice\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 20 March 2016 . Retrieved 14 November 2010 . ^ Malka Hillel Shulewitz, The Forgotten Millions: The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands , Continuum 2001, pp. 139 and 155. ^ Ada Aharoni \"The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries Archived 13 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine , Historical Society of Jews from Egypt website. Accessed 1 February 2009. ^ Cite error: The named reference Blum1987p69 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla (12 May 2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2 – via Google Books. ^ \"Jewish Population Rises to 15.7 Million Worldwide in 2023\" , Jewish Agency for Israel , September 15, 2023. Accessed November 30, 2025. \"About 27,000 Jews live in Arab and Muslim countries, of which 14,200 live in Turkey, 9,100 in Iran, 2,100 in Morocco, 1,000 in Tunisia, and 500 in the Emirates.\" ^ Picard 2018 , p. 4-5: \"There were two major changes in Zionist aliya policy in the first half of the 1940s. The first was the replacement of the preference for selective aliya by support for mass aliya. In 1944, Ben-Gurion called for bringing a million Jews to Palestine, even if public soup kitchens had to be set up to feed them... The second change was the decision to extend the aliya net to include the Jews of Muslim countries. It had become clear that they, too, would be needed to create a Jewish majority in Palestine... Independence and the removal of the British restrictions on Jewish immigration made it possible to implement these policy changes. The large-scale aliya of the next few years was the product of these two changes: it was mass aliya and it included Jews from Muslim countries.\" ^ Parfitt 1996 , p. 285: \"... economic straits as their traditional role was whittled away, famine, disease, growing political persecution and increased public hostility, the state of anarchy after the murder of Yahya , a desire to be reunited with family members, incitement and encouragement to leave from [Zionist agents who] played on their religious sensibilities, promises that their passage would be paid to Israel and that their material difficulties would be cared for by the Jewish state, a sense that the Land of Israel was a veritable Eldorado, a sense of history being fulfilled, a fear of missing the boat, a sense that living wretchedly as dhimmis in an Islamic state was no longer God-ordained, a sense that as a people they had been flayed by history long enough: all these played a role. ... Purely religious, messianic sentiment too, had its part but by and large this has been overemphasised.\" ^ Yehuda, Shenhav (15 August 2003). \"Hitching a Ride on the Magic Carpet\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 8 August 2012 . Retrieved 11 May 2011 . Any reasonable person, Zionist or non-Zionist, must acknowledge that the analogy drawn between Palestinians and Mizrahi Jews is unfounded. Palestinian refugees did not want to leave Palestine. Many Palestinian communities were destroyed in 1948, and some 700 000 Palestinians were expelled, or fled, from the borders of historic Palestine. Those who left did not do so of their own volition. In contrast, Jews from Arab lands came to this country under the initiative of the State of Israel and Jewish organizations. Some came of their own free will; others arrived against their will. Some lived comfortably and securely in Arab lands; others suffered from fear and oppression. ^ Yehouda Shenhav 'Arab Jews, population Exchange, and the Palestinian Right of Return,' in Ann M. Lesch, Ian S. Lustick (eds.), Exile and Return: Predicaments of Palestinians and Jews, University of Pennsylvania Press , 2008, ISBN 978-0-812-22052-0 , pp. 225–244, p. 225: \"In July 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton announced that an agreement had been reached at the Camp David summit to recognize the Jews from Arab countries as \"refugees\" and that an international fund would provide compensation for the property they left behind when they immigrated to Israel during the 1950s. The immediate political significance of this declaration was to help Israel's prime minister at the time, Ehud Barak, to mobilize Shas's voters (the majority of whom are of Arab descent) in support of the peace process. However, the underlying logic – defining the Jews from Arab countries as refugees-responded to a deeper political theory that was developed in Israel in the 1950s to counterbalance the collective rights of the Palestinian refugees. It is not surprising, therefore, that Palestinians around the world reacted with dismay and rage to this announcement. In its contemporary garb, this \"population exchange\" theory was proposed to abdicate Israel's responsibility for the expulsion of Palestinians in 1948 and to alleviate demands to compensate the Palestinian refugees, and serve as a bargaining chip against their right of return. For all practical purposes, the population exchange initiative was used to legitimate Israel's wrongdoing with regard to the transfer of the Palestinian refugees in 1948.\" ^ Mendes, Philip (2002). The Forgotten Refugees: the causes of the post-1948 Jewish Exodus from Arab Countries . 14th Jewish Studies Conference Melbourne March 2002. – \"The Forgotten Refugees\" . Retrieved 12 June 2007 – via MEFacts.com. {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) – \"The Forgotten Refugees\" . Archived from the original on 22 October 2012 . Retrieved 21 October 2010 – via Palestine Remembered."
  },
  {
   "title": "History of the Jews in Iraq",
   "pageid": 2255715,
   "revid_before": 1360796828,
   "revid_after": 1365677184,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-23T20:31:48Z",
   "lead_changed": false,
   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq&oldid=1360796828",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq&oldid=1365677184",
   "lead_before": "Ethnic group History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e The history of the Jews in Iraq is documented from the time of the Assyrian captivity in the 8th century BCE and Babylonian captivity ( c. 586 BCE ). Iraqi Jews ( al-Yahūd al-ʿIrāqiyyūn ), also known as Bavlim ( Hebrew : יְהוּדִים בָּבְלִים , Yəhūḏīm Bāḇəlīm , lit. ' Babylonian Jews ' ), constitute one of the world's oldest and most historically significant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in Mesopotamia , known in Jewish sources as \" Babylonia \", traces its origins to the early sixth century BCE, when a large number of Judeans from the defeated Kingdom of Judah were exiled to Babylon in several waves by the Neo-Babylonian Empire . The Jewish community of Babylonia rose to prominence as the center of Jewish scholarship following the decline of the Jewish population in the Land of Israel in the 3rd century CE. Estimates often place the Babylonian Jewish population of the third to seventh centuries at around one million, making it the largest Jewish diaspora community of that period. The area became home to many important Talmudic yeshivas such as the Nehardea , Pumbedita and Sura Academies , and the Babylonian Talmud was compiled there. The Mongol invasion and Islamic discrimination under the caliphates in the Middle Ages eventually led to the decline of the region's Jewish community. Under the Ottoman Empire , the Jews of Ottoman Iraq fared better. The community established modern schools in the second half of the 19th century. Driven by persecution, which saw many of the leading Jewish families of Baghdad flee for India, and expanding trade with British colonies, the Jews of Iraq established a trading diaspora in Asia known as the Baghdadi Jews . The Iraqi Jewish community formed a homogeneous group, maintaining communal Jewish identity, culture and traditions. The Jews in Iraq distinguished themselves by the way they spoke in their old Arabic dialect (and some in Aramaic ), Judeo-Arabic ; the way they dressed; observation of Jewish rituals, for example, the Sabbath and holidays ; and kashrut . In the 20th century, Iraqi Jews played an important role in the early days of Iraq's independence. According to Avi Shlaim , they were deeply integrated into the wider Iraqi society, culturally and linguistically. At the beginning of the 20th century Jews formed a notable presence in the country's main cities, including up to 40% in Baghdad and 25% in Basra . In 1941, the Farhud (\"violent dispossession\"), a major pogrom , occurred in Baghdad , in which 200 Jews or more were murdered. Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , persecution against Jews culminated in increased government oppression and cultural discrimination. The government, while maintaining a public policy of discrimination against Jews, simultaneously forbade Jews from emigrating to Israel out of concern for strengthening the nascent Israeli state. In 1950, the government reversed course and permitted Jews to emigrate in exchange for renouncing their citizenship. From 1950 to 1952, nearly the entire Iraqi Jewish population emptied out from Iraq to Israel through Operation Ezra and Nehemiah . Historians estimate that 120,000–130,000 Iraqi Jews (around 75% of the entire community) reached Israel. In the early years, the Ba'ath Party had a dual approach toward Jews. On one hand, Jews were detained, imprisoned, tortured, and even executed on charges of spying for Israel. On the other hand, some government officials displayed personal sympathy and leniency toward them. Many Jews managed to convince the authorities to release detainees. The era of Abdul-Karim Qasim was generally considered better for Jews compared to the rule of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr . During this period, a significant number of Jews fled the country, causing a sharp decline in the Jewish population. Eventually, overt repression eased, and Jews were treated more fairly. When Saddam Hussein rose to power, he repealed many antisemitic laws and policies. Under his rule, the Jewish population continued to dwindle—not due to persecution but because travel restrictions were lifted. Many Jews took advantage of this freedom to travel between Iraq and foreign countries, a practice that became routine. Those who settled abroad during this time retained their Iraqi citizenship. Additionally, several Jews served in government roles during his regime. The remainder of the Jewish population continued to dwindle in the ensuing decades; as of 2014, the total number of Jews living in Iraq numbered around 500, mostly in Baghdad and Kurdistan region. The religious and cultural traditions of Iraqi Jews are kept alive today in strong communities established by Iraqi Jews in Israel , especially in Or Yehuda , Givatayim and Kiryat Gat . According to government data as of 2014, there were 227,900 Jews of Iraqi descent in Israel, with other estimates as high as 600,000 Israelis having some Iraqi ancestry. Smaller communities upholding Iraqi Jewish traditions in the Jewish diaspora exist in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Singapore, Canada, and the United States. ^ Glanz, James; Garshowitz, Irit Pazner (April 27, 2016). \"In Israel, Iraqi Jews Reflect on Baghdad Heritage\" . The New York Times . Retrieved August 22, 2018 . ^ \"With Jews largely gone from Iraq, memories survive in Israel\" . Reuters . May 2, 2018 . Retrieved December 10, 2019 . ^ Mitchell, Bard (February 18, 2025). \"Jews in Islamic Countries:Iraq\" . Jewish Virtual Library . ^ \"يهود العراق من العصر العباسي إلى العراق الحديث – 2 – كتابات\" (in Arabic) . Retrieved December 7, 2024 . ^ azzaman (January 24, 2022). \"خلدون ناجي معروف 1945–2008 | Azzaman\" [Khaldoun Naji Marouf 1945-2008] . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Al-Saadi, Ali. \"يهود العراق من العصر العباسي إلى العراق الحديث – 2 – كتابات\" [Iraqi Jews from the Abbasid Era to Modern Iraq - 2] (in Arabic) . Retrieved December 7, 2024 . ^ בלברג, מירה (2013). פתח לספרות חז\"ל [ Gateway to Rabbinic literature ] (in Hebrew). הוצאת האוניברסיטה הפתוחה. pp. 176– 179. ^ Gafni, Isaiah (2006), \"The Political, Social, and Economic History of Babylonian Jewry, 224–638 CE\" , in Katz, Steven T. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period , The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 805, doi : 10.1017/chol9780521772488.033 , ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8 , retrieved September 10, 2024 ^ \"Nehardea Magazine\" . Archived from the original on November 21, 2008. ^ \" \"Conference asks: Iraqi Israeli, Arab Jew or Mizrahi Jew?\", Haaretz \" . Archived from the original on May 20, 2008 . Retrieved June 24, 2008 . ^ Yehuda, Zvi (August 28, 2017). The New Babylonian Diaspora: The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Community in Iraq, 16th–20th Centuries C.E. BRILL. ISBN 9789004354012 . ^ 'What lends our story some broader interest is the fact that we belonged to a branch of the global Jewish community that is now almost extinct. We were Arab-Jews. We lived in Baghdad and we were well-integrated into Iraqi society. We spoke Arabic at home, our social customs were Arab, our lifestyle was Arab, our cuisine was exquisitely Middle Eastern and my parents' music was an attractive blend of Arabic and Jewish'. Avi Shlaim , Three Worlds: Memoirs of an Arab-Jew , Oneworld Publications 2023 ISBN 978-0-861-54464-6 'Chapter One:Arab Jews.' ^ Levy, Ido (October 19, 2021). \"Reclaiming Iraq's Jewish Heritage\" . Washington Institute . ^ \"Israelis from Iraq remember Babylon\" . May 7, 2007 – via BBC News. ^ \"משרד העלייה והקליטה\" . gov.il . Retrieved February 20, 2019 . ^ Shute, Joe (November 22, 2017). \"Remembering the last Jews of Iraq\" . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022 . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ Harriet Sherwood (May 5, 2018). \"Iraq-born refugee could become first Arabic speaker to head Britain's Jews\" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ \"Lost history: understanding the unseen story of Iraqi Jews\" . The Irish Catholic . June 27, 2019 . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ Desiatnik, Shane. \"Iraqi refugee's survival story\" . ajn.timesofisrael.com . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ Shay, Ayelet Mamo (April 20, 2015). \"Singapore, a tiny heaven for Jews\" . Ynetnews . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ \"IJAO\" . Iraqi Jewish Association Of Ontario . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ Feldman, Ari (February 6, 2019). \"52 Iraqi Jews Were Killed By The Secret Police. 50 Years Later, Their Descendants Come Forward\" . Forward . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ \"Euro-MP : Jews are leaving Europe, while antisemites come in • Point of No Return\" . September 21, 2024.",
   "lead_after": "Ethnic group History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e The history of the Jews in Iraq is documented from the time of the Assyrian captivity in the 8th century BCE and Babylonian captivity ( c. 586 BCE ). Iraqi Jews ( al-Yahūd al-ʿIrāqiyyūn ), also known as Bavlim ( Hebrew : יְהוּדִים בָּבְלִים , Yəhūḏīm Bāḇəlīm , lit. ' Babylonian Jews ' ), constitute one of the world's oldest and most historically significant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in Mesopotamia , known in Jewish sources as \" Babylonia \", traces its origins to the early sixth century BCE, when a large number of Judeans from the defeated Kingdom of Judah were exiled to Babylon in several waves by the Neo-Babylonian Empire . The Jewish community of Babylonia rose to prominence as the center of Jewish scholarship following the decline of the Jewish population in the Land of Israel in the 3rd century CE. Estimates often place the Babylonian Jewish population of the third to seventh centuries at around one million, making it the largest Jewish diaspora community of that period. The area became home to many important Talmudic yeshivas such as the Nehardea , Pumbedita and Sura Academies , and the Babylonian Talmud was compiled there. The Mongol invasion and Islamic discrimination under the caliphates in the Middle Ages eventually led to the decline of the region's Jewish community. Under the Ottoman Empire , the Jews of Ottoman Iraq fared better. The community established modern schools in the second half of the 19th century. Driven by persecution, which saw many of the leading Jewish families of Baghdad flee for India, and expanding trade with British colonies, the Jews of Iraq established a trading diaspora in Asia known as the Baghdadi Jews . The Iraqi Jewish community formed a homogeneous group, maintaining communal Jewish identity, culture and traditions. The Jews in Iraq distinguished themselves by the way they spoke in their old Arabic dialect (and some in Aramaic ), Judeo-Arabic ; the way they dressed; observation of Jewish rituals, for example, the Sabbath and holidays ; and kashrut . In the 20th century, Iraqi Jews played an important role in the early days of Iraq's independence. According to Avi Shlaim , they were deeply integrated into the wider Iraqi society, culturally and linguistically. At the beginning of the 20th century Jews formed a notable presence in the country's main cities, including up to 40% in Baghdad and 25% in Basra . In 1941, the Farhud (\"violent dispossession\"), a major pogrom , occurred in Baghdad , in which 200 Jews or more were murdered. Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , persecution against Jews culminated in increased government oppression and cultural discrimination. The government, while maintaining a public policy of discrimination against Jews, simultaneously forbade Jews from emigrating to Israel out of concern for strengthening the nascent Israeli state. In 1950, the government reversed course and permitted Jews to emigrate in exchange for renouncing their citizenship. From 1950 to 1952, nearly the entire Iraqi Jewish population emptied out from Iraq to Israel through Operation Ezra and Nehemiah . Historians estimate that 120,000–130,000 Iraqi Jews (around 75% of the entire community) reached Israel. In the early years, the Ba'ath Party had a dual approach toward Jews. On one hand, Jews were detained, imprisoned, tortured, and even executed on charges of spying for Israel. On the other hand, some government officials displayed personal sympathy and leniency toward them. Many Jews managed to convince the authorities to release detainees. The era of Abdul-Karim Qasim was generally considered better for Jews compared to the rule of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr . During this period, a significant number of Jews fled the country, causing a sharp decline in the Jewish population. Eventually, overt repression eased, and Jews were treated more fairly. When Saddam Hussein rose to power, he repealed many antisemitic laws and policies. Under his rule, the Jewish population continued to dwindle—not due to persecution but because travel restrictions were lifted. Many Jews took advantage of this freedom to travel between Iraq and foreign countries, a practice that became routine. Those who settled abroad during this time retained their Iraqi citizenship. Additionally, several Jews served in government roles during his regime. The remainder of the Jewish population continued to dwindle in the ensuing decades; as of 2014, the total number of Jews living in Iraq numbered around 500, mostly in Baghdad and Kurdistan region. The religious and cultural traditions of Iraqi Jews are kept alive today in strong communities established by Iraqi Jews in Israel , especially in Or Yehuda , Givatayim and Kiryat Gat . According to government data as of 2014, there were 227,900 Jews of Iraqi descent in Israel, with other estimates as high as 600,000 Israelis having some Iraqi ancestry. Smaller communities upholding Iraqi Jewish traditions in the Jewish diaspora exist in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Singapore, Canada, and the United States. ^ Glanz, James; Garshowitz, Irit Pazner (April 27, 2016). \"In Israel, Iraqi Jews Reflect on Baghdad Heritage\" . The New York Times . Retrieved August 22, 2018 . ^ \"With Jews largely gone from Iraq, memories survive in Israel\" . Reuters . May 2, 2018 . Retrieved December 10, 2019 . ^ Mitchell, Bard (February 18, 2025). \"Jews in Islamic Countries:Iraq\" . Jewish Virtual Library . ^ \"يهود العراق من العصر العباسي إلى العراق الحديث – 2 – كتابات\" (in Arabic) . Retrieved December 7, 2024 . ^ azzaman (January 24, 2022). \"خلدون ناجي معروف 1945–2008 | Azzaman\" [Khaldoun Naji Marouf 1945-2008] . Retrieved November 15, 2024 . ^ Al-Saadi, Ali. \"يهود العراق من العصر العباسي إلى العراق الحديث – 2 – كتابات\" [Iraqi Jews from the Abbasid Era to Modern Iraq - 2] (in Arabic) . Retrieved December 7, 2024 . ^ בלברג, מירה (2013). פתח לספרות חז\"ל [ Gateway to Rabbinic literature ] (in Hebrew). הוצאת האוניברסיטה הפתוחה. pp. 176– 179. ^ Gafni, Isaiah (2006), \"The Political, Social, and Economic History of Babylonian Jewry, 224–638 CE\" , in Katz, Steven T. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period , The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 805, doi : 10.1017/chol9780521772488.033 , ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8 , retrieved September 10, 2024 ^ \"Nehardea Magazine\" . Archived from the original on November 21, 2008. ^ \" \"Conference asks: Iraqi Israeli, Arab Jew or Mizrahi Jew?\", Haaretz \" . Archived from the original on May 20, 2008 . Retrieved June 24, 2008 . ^ Yehuda, Zvi (August 28, 2017). The New Babylonian Diaspora: The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Community in Iraq, 16th–20th Centuries C.E. BRILL. ISBN 9789004354012 . ^ 'What lends our story some broader interest is the fact that we belonged to a branch of the global Jewish community that is now almost extinct. We were Arab-Jews. We lived in Baghdad and we were well-integrated into Iraqi society. We spoke Arabic at home, our social customs were Arab, our lifestyle was Arab, our cuisine was exquisitely Middle Eastern and my parents' music was an attractive blend of Arabic and Jewish'. Avi Shlaim , Three Worlds: Memoirs of an Arab-Jew , Oneworld Publications 2023 ISBN 978-0-861-54464-6 'Chapter One:Arab Jews.' ^ Levy, Ido (October 19, 2021). \"Reclaiming Iraq's Jewish Heritage\" . Washington Institute . ^ \"Israelis from Iraq remember Babylon\" . May 7, 2007 – via BBC News. ^ \"משרד העלייה והקליטה\" . gov.il . Retrieved February 20, 2019 . ^ Shute, Joe (November 22, 2017). \"Remembering the last Jews of Iraq\" . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on January 12, 2022 . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ Harriet Sherwood (May 5, 2018). \"Iraq-born refugee could become first Arabic speaker to head Britain's Jews\" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ \"Lost history: understanding the unseen story of Iraqi Jews\" . The Irish Catholic . June 27, 2019 . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ Desiatnik, Shane. \"Iraqi refugee's survival story\" . ajn.timesofisrael.com . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ Shay, Ayelet Mamo (April 20, 2015). \"Singapore, a tiny heaven for Jews\" . Ynetnews . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ \"IJAO\" . Iraqi Jewish Association Of Ontario . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ Feldman, Ari (February 6, 2019). \"52 Iraqi Jews Were Killed By The Secret Police. 50 Years Later, Their Descendants Come Forward\" . Forward . Retrieved January 20, 2020 . ^ \"Euro-MP : Jews are leaving Europe, while antisemites come in • Point of No Return\" . September 21, 2024."
  },
  {
   "title": "Jihad",
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   "lead_before": "Term for religious struggle in Islam For other uses, see Jihad (disambiguation) . Political Islamic leadership Caliphate Majlis-ash-Shura Imamate Wilayat al-faqih Bay'ah Dhimmi Aman Family Criminal Etiquette Adab Gender segregation ( Purdah ) Mahram Honorifics Toilet Economic Hygiene Military Jihad Ghanimah Hudna Istijarah (asylum) Prisoners of war Social Haqq al-Nas ( The right(s) of the people ) Islamic studies v t e Jihad ( / dʒ ɪ ˈ h ɑː d / ; Arabic : جِهَاد , romanized : jihād [dʒiˈhaːd] ) is an Arabic word that means ' exerting ' , ' striving ' , or ' struggling ' , particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God 's guidance, such as an internal struggle against evil in oneself, efforts to build a good Muslim community ( ummah ), and struggle to defend Islam . For its literal translation 'struggle', the term is frequently associated with warfare . Jihad is classified into inner (\"greater\") jihad , which involves a struggle against one's own passions and impulses, and outer (\"lesser\") jihad , which is further subdivided into jihad of the pen/tongue (debate or persuasion) and jihad of the sword (warfare). Much of Muslim opinion considers inner jihad to have primacy over outer jihad . The analysis of a large survey from 2002 reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of jihad held by Muslims around the world, ranging from righteous living and promoting peace to fighting against the opponents of Islam . The word jihad appears frequently in the Qur'an referring to both religious and spiritual struggle and to war and physical struggle, often in the idiomatic expression \" al-jihad fi sabil Allah \" ( ' striving in the path of God ' ), conveying a sense of self-exertion. In the hadiths , jihad refers predominantly to warfare. Greater jihad refers to spiritual and moral struggle, and has traditionally been emphasized in Sufi and Ahmadiyya circles. The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims when Muhammad was at Mecca , when the community had two choices: further emigration ( hijrah ) or war . The Qur'an justifies war in self-defense or in response to aggression towards other Muslims, however the sword verses have historically been interpreted to abrogate other verses and justify offensive war against unbelievers, forcibly converting polytheistic pagans during the early Muslim conquests . A set of rules pertaining to jihad were developed, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat, on killing animals such as horses, and on unnecessary destruction of enemy property. In the twentieth century, the notion of jihad lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to ideological and political discourse. While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of jihad , some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical texts. The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various insurgent Islamic extremist , militant Islamist , and terrorist individuals and organizations. Today, the word jihad is often used without religious connotations, like the English crusade . ^ Esposito, John L., ed. (2014). \"Jihad\" . The Oxford Dictionary of Islam . Oxford : Oxford University Press . Archived from the original on 3 September 2014 . Retrieved 29 August 2014 . ^ Cite error: The named reference OEIP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Tyan, E. (1965). \"D̲j̲ihād\". In Bosworth, C. E. ; van Donzel, E. J. ; Heinrichs, W. P. ; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch. ; Schacht, J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition . Vol. 2. Leiden : Brill Publishers . doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189 . ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4 . ^ Jackson, Roy (2014). What is Islamic philosophy? . Routledge. p. 173. ISBN 978-1317814047 . jihad Literally 'struggle' which has many meanings, though most frequently associated with war. ^ DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (22 February 2018) [10 May 2017]. \"Jihad\" . Oxford Bibliographies – Islamic Studies . Oxford : Oxford University Press . doi : 10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0045 . Archived from the original on 29 June 2016 . Retrieved 25 October 2021 . ^ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia, eds. (2013). \"Jihad\". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought . Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press . Literally meaning \"struggle\", jihad may be associated with almost any activity by which Muslims attempt to bring personal and social life into a pattern of conformity with the guidance of God. ^ Bonner, Michael (2006). Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-1400827381 . ^ Peters, Rudolph (2005). \"Jihad\". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion . Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference. p. 4917. ^ Cite error: The named reference gallop was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AD11 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Morgan, Diane (2010). Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice . ABC-CLIO. p. 87 . ISBN 978-0313360251 . Retrieved 5 January 2011 . ^ Meri, Josef W. , ed. (2005). \"Jihad\" . Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia . Routledge . p. 419. ISBN 978-041596690-0 . ^ Esposito, John L. (1988). Islam: The Straight Path . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0195043983 . ^ \"Islam and war\" . BBC . 13 August 2009 . Retrieved 14 July 2024 . ^ al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). \"The coming of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim empire\" . General History of Africa: Volume 3 . UNESCO. ^ Bernard Lewis (27 September 2001). \"Jihad vs. Crusade\" . Opinionjournal.com. Archived from the original on 16 August 2016 . Retrieved 4 August 2016 . ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (2011). \"Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War\". The Muslim World . 101 (3): 416. doi : 10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x . ISSN 1478-1913 . In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort. ^ Hallaq, Wael B. (16 April 2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations . Cambridge University Press. pp. 334– 38. ISBN 978-0-521-86147-2 . ^ Jalal, Ayesha (30 June 2009). \"Islam Subverted? Jihad as Terrorism\". Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia . Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . pp. 239– 240. doi : 10.4159/9780674039070-007 . ISBN 978-0-674-03907-0 . S2CID 152941120 . ^ Badara, Mohamed; Nagata, Masaki (November 2017). \"Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective\" . Arab Law Quarterly . 31 (4). Leiden : Brill Publishers : 305– 335. doi : 10.1163/15730255-12314024 . ISSN 1573-0255 . ^ Cook, David (2005). \"Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory\" . Understanding Jihad . University of California Press. pp. 93– 127. ISBN 978-0-520-24203-6 . JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10 . LCCN 2015010201 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Term for religious struggle in Islam For other uses, see Jihad (disambiguation) . Political Islamic leadership Caliphate Majlis-ash-Shura Imamate Wilayat al-faqih Bay'ah Dhimmi Aman Family Criminal Etiquette Adab Gender segregation ( Purdah ) Mahram Honorifics Toilet Economic Hygiene Military Jihad Ghanimah Hudna Istijarah (asylum) Prisoners of war Social Haqq al-Nas ( The right(s) of the people ) Islamic studies v t e Jihad ( / dʒ ɪ ˈ h ɑː d / ; Arabic : جِهَاد , romanized : jihād [d͡ʒɪˈhæːd] ) is an Arabic word that means ' exerting ' , ' striving ' , or ' struggling ' , particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God 's guidance, such as an internal struggle against evil in oneself, efforts to build a good Muslim community ( ummah ), and struggle to defend Islam . For its literal translation 'struggle', the term is frequently associated with warfare . Jihad is classified into inner (\"greater\") jihad , which involves a struggle against one's own passions and impulses, and outer (\"lesser\") jihad , which is further subdivided into jihad of the pen/tongue (debate or persuasion) and jihad of the sword (warfare). Much of Muslim opinion considers inner jihad to have primacy over outer jihad . The analysis of a large survey from 2002 reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of jihad held by Muslims around the world, ranging from righteous living and promoting peace to fighting against the opponents of Islam . The word jihad appears frequently in the Qur'an referring to both religious and spiritual struggle and to war and physical struggle, often in the idiomatic expression \" al-jihad fi sabil Allah \" ( ' striving in the path of God ' ), conveying a sense of self-exertion. In the hadiths , jihad refers predominantly to warfare. Greater jihad refers to spiritual and moral struggle, and has traditionally been emphasized in Sufi and Ahmadiyya circles. The sense of jihad as armed resistance was first used in the context of persecution faced by Muslims when Muhammad was at Mecca , when the community had two choices: further emigration ( hijrah ) or war . The Qur'an justifies war in self-defense or in response to aggression towards other Muslims, however the sword verses have historically been interpreted to abrogate other verses and justify offensive war against unbelievers, forcibly converting polytheistic pagans during the early Muslim conquests . A set of rules pertaining to jihad were developed, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat, on killing animals such as horses, and on unnecessary destruction of enemy property. In the twentieth century, the notion of jihad lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to ideological and political discourse. While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of jihad , some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical texts. The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various insurgent Islamic extremist , militant Islamist , and terrorist individuals and organizations. Today, the word jihad is often used without religious connotations, like the English crusade . ^ Esposito, John L., ed. (2014). \"Jihad\" . The Oxford Dictionary of Islam . Oxford : Oxford University Press . Archived from the original on 3 September 2014 . Retrieved 29 August 2014 . ^ Cite error: The named reference OEIP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Tyan, E. (1965). \"D̲j̲ihād\". In Bosworth, C. E. ; van Donzel, E. J. ; Heinrichs, W. P. ; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch. ; Schacht, J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition . Vol. 2. Leiden : Brill Publishers . doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189 . ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4 . ^ Jackson, Roy (2014). What is Islamic philosophy? . Routledge. p. 173. ISBN 978-1317814047 . jihad Literally 'struggle' which has many meanings, though most frequently associated with war. ^ DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (22 February 2018) [10 May 2017]. \"Jihad\" . Oxford Bibliographies – Islamic Studies . Oxford : Oxford University Press . doi : 10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0045 . Archived from the original on 29 June 2016 . Retrieved 25 October 2021 . ^ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia, eds. (2013). \"Jihad\". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought . Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press . Literally meaning \"struggle\", jihad may be associated with almost any activity by which Muslims attempt to bring personal and social life into a pattern of conformity with the guidance of God. ^ Bonner, Michael (2006). Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978-1400827381 . ^ Peters, Rudolph (2005). \"Jihad\". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion . Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference. p. 4917. ^ Cite error: The named reference gallop was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AD11 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Morgan, Diane (2010). Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice . ABC-CLIO. p. 87 . ISBN 978-0313360251 . Retrieved 5 January 2011 . ^ Meri, Josef W. , ed. (2005). \"Jihad\" . Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia . Routledge . p. 419. ISBN 978-041596690-0 . ^ Esposito, John L. (1988). Islam: The Straight Path . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0195043983 . ^ \"Islam and war\" . BBC . 13 August 2009 . Retrieved 14 July 2024 . ^ al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). \"The coming of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim empire\" . General History of Africa: Volume 3 . UNESCO. ^ Bernard Lewis (27 September 2001). \"Jihad vs. Crusade\" . Opinionjournal.com. Archived from the original on 16 August 2016 . Retrieved 4 August 2016 . ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (2011). \"Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War\". The Muslim World . 101 (3): 416. doi : 10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x . ISSN 1478-1913 . In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort. ^ Hallaq, Wael B. (16 April 2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations . Cambridge University Press. pp. 334– 38. ISBN 978-0-521-86147-2 . ^ Jalal, Ayesha (30 June 2009). \"Islam Subverted? Jihad as Terrorism\". Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia . Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . pp. 239– 240. doi : 10.4159/9780674039070-007 . ISBN 978-0-674-03907-0 . S2CID 152941120 . ^ Badara, Mohamed; Nagata, Masaki (November 2017). \"Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective\" . Arab Law Quarterly . 31 (4). Leiden : Brill Publishers : 305– 335. doi : 10.1163/15730255-12314024 . ISSN 1573-0255 . ^ Cook, David (2005). \"Radical Islam and Contemporary Jihad Theory\" . Understanding Jihad . University of California Press. pp. 93– 127. ISBN 978-0-520-24203-6 . JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctv1xxt55.10 . LCCN 2015010201 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "San Remo conference",
   "pageid": 100615,
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   "lead_before": "1920 meeting on post-WWI Ottoman territories The San Remo conference was an international meeting of the post- World War I Allied Supreme Council as an outgrowth of the Paris Peace Conference , held at Castle Devachan in Sanremo , Italy, from 19 to 26 April 1920. The San Remo Resolution passed on 25 April 1920 determined the allocation of Class \"A\" League of Nations mandates for the administration of three then-undefined Ottoman territories in the Middle East : \" Palestine \", \" Syria \" and \" Mesopotamia \". The boundaries of the three territories were \"to be determined [at a later date] by the Principal Allied Powers\", leaving the status of outlying areas such as Zor and Transjordan unclear. The conference was attended by the four Principal Allied Powers of World War I who were represented by the prime ministers of Britain ( David Lloyd George ), France ( Alexandre Millerand ), Italy ( Francesco Nitti ) and by Japan 's Ambassador Keishirō Matsui .",
   "lead_after": "1920 meeting on post-WWI Ottoman territories The San Remo conference was an international meeting of the post- World War I Allied Supreme Council as an outgrowth of the Paris Peace Conference , held at Castle Devachan in Sanremo , Italy, from 19 to 26 April 1920. The San Remo Resolution passed on 25 April 1920 determined the allocation of Class \"A\" League of Nations mandates for the administration of three then-undefined Ottoman territories in the Middle East : \" Palestine \", \" Syria \" and \" Mesopotamia \". The boundaries of the three territories were \"to be determined [at a later date] by the Principal Allied Powers\", leaving the status of outlying areas such as Zor and Transjordan unclear. The conference was attended by the four Principal Allied Powers of World War I who were represented by the prime ministers of Britain ( David Lloyd George ), France ( Alexandre Millerand ), Italy ( Francesco Nitti ) and by Japan 's Ambassador Keishirō Matsui ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Palestinians",
   "pageid": 23267,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-27T23:40:57Z",
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   "lead_before": "Arab national group of the Levant \"Palestinian\" redirects here. For other uses, see Palestinian (disambiguation) . Not to be confused with Philistines . Ethnic group Palestinians ( Arabic : الفلسطينيون , romanized : al-Filasṭīniyyūn ) are an Arab national group native to the region of Palestine , descended from those who have inhabited the area over the millennia. They represent a highly homogenized community who share a cultural and ethnic identity , and close linguistic and cultural ties with other Levantine Arabs . In 1919, Palestinian Muslims and Christians constituted 90 percent of the population of Palestine, just before the third wave of Jewish immigration and the setting up of British Mandatory Palestine after World War I . Opposition to Jewish immigration spurred the consolidation of a unified national identity , though Palestinian society was still fragmented by regional, class, religious, and family differences. The history of the Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars. For some, the term \" Palestinian \" is used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs from the late 19th century and in the pre-World War I period, while others assert the Palestinian identity encompasses the heritage of all eras from pre- biblical times up to the Ottoman period . After the Israeli Declaration of Independence , the 1948 Palestinian expulsion , and more so after the 1967 Palestinian exodus , the term \"Palestinian\" evolved into a sense of a shared future in the form of aspirations for a Palestinian state . Though the concept of Palestinian citizenship for the purpose of international law has been revived, the in fieri realization of self-determination is still insufficient, thus Palestinians remain over the threshold of eligibility to receive international protection as refugees and stateless persons. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an umbrella organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before international states. The Palestinian National Authority , officially established in 1994 as a result of the Oslo Accords , is an interim administrative body nominally responsible for governance in Palestinian population centres in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People . Despite various wars and exoduses , roughly one half of the world's Palestinian population continues to reside in the territory of former Mandatory Palestine , now encompassing Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . In Israel proper, Palestinians constitute almost 21 percent of the population as part of its Arab citizens . Many are Palestinian refugees or internally displaced Palestinians , including over 1.4 million in the Gaza Strip, over 870,000 in the West Bank, and around 250,000 in Israel proper. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora , more than half are stateless , lacking legal citizenship in any country. 2.3 million of the diaspora population are registered as refugees in neighboring Jordan , most of whom hold Jordanian citizenship; over 1 million live between Syria and Lebanon , and about 750,000 live in Saudi Arabia , with Chile holding the largest Palestinian diaspora concentration (around half a million) outside of the Arab world . ^ \"Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) Presents the Conditions of Palestinian Populations on the Occasion of the International Population Day, 11/07/2022\" (PDF) . Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). 7 July 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 November 2023 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . ^ \"Where We Work – Gaza Strip\" . UNRWA. August 2023. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ \"PCBS reports Palestinian population growth to 4.81 million\" . Ma'an News Agency . 11 July 2016. Archived from the original on 13 July 2016. ^ \"West Bank\" . The World Fact Book . CIA. Archived from the original on 22 July 2021. ^ \"PCBS: The Palestinians at the end of 2015\" . Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics . 30 December 2015. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. ^ \"Where We Work – Jordan\" . UNRWA . Archived from the original on 31 March 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ \"Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) Press Release\" (PDF) . Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics . Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Israel's population approaches 9.7 million as 2022 comes to an end\" . The Times of Israel . 29 December 2022. Archived from the original on 2 June 2023 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . ^ \"Where We Work UNRWA\" . UNRWA . Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Zalaquett pone a Chile como modelo de convivencia palestino-judía\" [Zalaquett sets Chile as a model for Palestinian-Jewish coexistence]. Diario La Nación (in Spanish). 16 October 2009. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016 . Retrieved 27 December 2024 . ^ \"Cómo llegó Chile a tener la mayor comunidad de palestinos fuera de Israel y del mundo árabe\" [How Chile came to have the largest Palestinian community outside Israel and the Arab world]. BBC Mundo (in Spanish). 6 November 2023 . Retrieved 27 December 2024 . ^ \"Arab, Palestinan\" . Joshua Project. Archived from the original on 15 June 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2016 . ^ \"U.S. Census website\" . United States Census Bureau . Archived from the original on 27 December 1996 . Retrieved 22 April 2009 . ^ \"Palästinenser in Deutschland – \"Das ist nicht mehr mein Land\" \" . fr.de (in German). 12 February 2024 . Retrieved 16 February 2025 . ^ \"Palestinians Living in UAE Uncertain Over Peace Deal With Israel\" . The Media Line . 16 August 2020. Archived from the original on 24 May 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Lebanon conducts first-ever census of Palestinian refugees\" . Jordan Times . 21 December 2017. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Migration Stock in Egypt 2022\" (PDF) . International Organization for Migration (IOM) . Retrieved 15 September 2024 . ^ \"Palestinians Open Kuwaiti Embassy\" . Al Monitor . 23 May 2013. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013 . Retrieved 23 May 2013 . ^ Jorge Alberto Amaya (23 July 2015). \"Los Árabes y Palestinos en Honduras: su establecimiento e impacto en la sociedad hondureña contemporánea: 1900–2009\" [The Arabs and Palestinians in Honduras: Their Establishment and Impact on Contemporary Honduran Society: 1900–2009] (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. En suma, los árabes y palestinos, arribados al país a finales del siglo XIX, dominan hoy en día la economía del país, y cada vez están emergiendo como actores importantes de la clase política hondureña y forman, después de Chile, la mayor concentración de descendientes de palestinos en América Latina, con entre 150,000 y 200,000 personas. [In short, Arabs and Palestinians, who arrived in the country at the end of the 19th century, dominate the country's economy today and are increasingly emerging as important players in the Honduran political class, forming, after Chile, the largest concentration of Palestinian descendants in Latin America, with between 150,000 and 200,000 people.] ^ \"El Salvador's Palestinian connection\" . 26 February 2006. Archived from the original on 15 October 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Factsheet: Palestinian Refugees in Iraq\" . Al Awda California . Archived from the original on 20 July 2009 . Retrieved 16 June 2009 . ^ \"Estatísticas gerais: imigrantes e descendentes\" . memorialdoimigrante.org . Archived from the original on 23 March 2009 . Retrieved 27 May 2009 . ^ \"Ethnic or cultural origin by gender and age: Canada, provinces and territories\" . Statistics Canada . 26 October 2022 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . ^ \"Tabiiyete Göre Yabancı Nüfus\" [Foreign Population by Nationality] (in Turkish). Turkish Statistical Institute . Retrieved 12 October 2025 . ^ \"The Palestinian Diaspora in Europe\" . Archived from the original on 18 June 2020 . Retrieved 22 June 2011 . ^ \"Did you know that ... Palestinians in the Netherlands\" . Palestine Link . Archived from the original on 4 November 2018 . Retrieved 4 November 2018 . ^ \"Handing on the key: Palestians in Australia\" (PDF) . Immigration Museum. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2012 . Retrieved 21 May 2011 . ^ \"Australians' Ancestries\" (PDF) . Australian Bureau of Statistics . 2001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 March 2019 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ Benito, Miguel. \"Palestinier\" . Invandringens encyklopedi . Archived from the original on 29 July 2013 . Retrieved 23 February 2013 . ^ \"UNHCR Global Appeal 2014–2015: Algeria\" (PDF) . United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees . 2015 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . ^ Dowty 2023 , 3. The Arab Story to 1914: \"Palestine was part of the first wave of conquest following Muhammad's death in 632 CE; Jerusalem fell to the Caliph Umar in 638. The indigenous population, descended from Jews, other Semitic groups, and non-Semitic groups such as the Philistines, had been mostly Christianized. Over succeeding centuries it was Islamicized, and Arabic replaced Aramaic (a Semitic tongue closely related to Hebrew) as the dominant language\" Dowty 2023 , 10. The Perfect Conflict: \"Palestinians are the descendants of all the indigenous peoples who lived in Palestine over the centuries; since the seventh century, they have been predominantly Muslim in religion and almost completely Arab in language and culture.\" Gelvin 2021 , p. 100: \"Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the 'conquest of land' and the 'conquest of labor' slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian 'other'.\" Danver 2015 , p. 554: \"The origin of the term Palestinian is uncertain. Some historians connect it to the Philistines, a biblical people that resided on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea as early as the twelfth century B.C.E. Thus, Palestinians are considered by some to be the indigenous people of present-day Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. Other scholars dispute this view, asserting that Jews and others resided in Palestine—usually defined as the narrow strip of land bordered by the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea—long before these Arabs arrived in the seventh century.\" Esposito 2004 , Arab-Israeli Conflict: \"Although their leaders welcomed the Jews as refugees, many Palestinians (the indigenous Arab population of Palestine) viewed the arrival of Jewish settlers as a threat to their security and to their land.\" Falk 2017 , pp. 14, 201: \"Although at the beginning of the twentieth century a considerable proportion of the Palestinian Arabs were evidently immigrants from adjacent countries, some may be the descendents of the ancient inhabitants of the country. Thus, some Palestinian Arabs, like the Jews, may claim a genetic relationship to the ancient inhabitants of the country.\"; \"Even though not a race in a biological sense, political Zionism, after a century of attempts to prove contemporary Jews' material, biological relationships – not merely their spiritual, cultural ones – to the ancient people of the biblical stories, in spite of widespread interspersing with local communities, finally has succeeded. It is tragic that Zionism, as well as Arab Nationalism, have failed to recognize the Palestinians, many of whom similarly appear to share phylogenetic relations to the historic inhabitants of the country, as equal partners.\" Tanous, Osama; Asi, Yara; Hammoudeh, Weeam; Mills, David; Wispelwey, Bram (2023). \"Structural racism and the health of Palestinian citizens of Israel\" . Global Public Health . 18 (1) 2214608. doi : 10.1080/17441692.2023.2214608 . PMID 37209155 . On the other hand, Palestinians, the vast majority and indigenous inhabitants of the land, were negatively defined by what they were not; i.e. as non-Jewish communities with civil and religious rights, but not political or territorial rights to the land ^ Nassar 2019 : \"The emergence of Palestinians as a national group [...] cannot be solely based on biological roots or continuous habitation of their homeland, but primarily on when, and how they began to imagine and articulate themselves as belonging to a national group. At the same time, such imagination ought to be considered within the historical context in which it developed. In other words, the fact that the people whom we call Palestinians today are the descendants of the various groups that inhabited Palestine throughout its history is not enough to unpack the history of their national identity.\" Jabareen 2002 , p. 214: \"This blurring has led to a situation in which characteristics of the State of Israel are presented as characteristics of a nation-state, even though (de facto) it is a binational state, and Palestinian citizens are presented as an ethnic minority group although they are a homeland majority.\" Hussain & Shumock 2006 , p. 269ff, 284: \"The Palestinians...are an ethnic minority in their country of residence.\" Nasser 2013 , p. 69: \"What is noteworthy here is the use of a general category 'Arabs', instead of a more specific one of 'Palestinians.' By turning to a general category, the particularity of Palestinians, among other ethnic and national groups, is erased and in its place Jordanian identity is implanted.\" Haklai 2011 , p. 112: \"...throughout the 1990s and 2000s a growing number of PAI political organizations have been increasingly promoting Palestinian consciousness, advancing ethnonationalist objectives, and demanding recognition of collective group rights.\" Abu-Rayya, Hisham Motkal; Abu-Rayya, Maram Hussien (2009). \"Acculturation, religious identity, and psychological well-being among Palestinians in Israel\". International Journal of Intercultural Relations . 33 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.05.006 . ISSN 0147-1767 . Moilanen-Miller, Heather. \"The Construction of Identity through Tradition: Palestinians in the Detroit Metro Area\" . International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Science . 4 (5): 143– 150. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 2 December 2015 . ^ New York Times 1978 : \"The Palestinians are an Arab people, largely Moslem but with important numbers of Christians, who live in, once lived in, or trace their descent through parents or grandparents to the land once known as Palestine, which came under a British mandate in 1922 and now is the land of Israel, the West Bank of the Jordan and the Gaza Strip.\" Yakobson & Rubinstein 2009 , p. 179: \"Of course, the notion that the Palestinians are an Arab people, an integral part of the Arab world ('the Arab nation'), is wholly legitimate and natural, given the history and culture of the people in question.\" Wilmer 2021 , p. 14: \"People know who they are, where they live, and where their families have lived for centuries or millennia.\" Abu-Libdeh, Turnpenny & Teebi 2012 , p. 700: \"Palestinians are an indigenous people who either live in, or originate from, historical Palestine.... Although the Muslims guaranteed security and allowed religious freedom to all inhabitants of the region, the majority converted to Islam and adopted Arab culture.\" Encyclopedia Britannica , From the Arab conquest to 1900 : \"The process of Arabization and Islamization was gaining momentum there. It was one of the mainstays of Umayyad power and was important in their struggle against both Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula.... Conversions arising from convenience as well as conviction then increased. These conversions to Islam, together with a steady tribal inflow from the desert, changed the religious character of Palestine's inhabitants. The predominantly Christian population gradually became predominantly Muslim and Arabic-speaking. At the same time, during the early years of Muslim control of the city, a small permanent Jewish population returned to Jerusalem after a 500-year absence.\" Lewis 1999 , p. 169 Parkes 1970 , pp. 209–10: \"the word 'Arab' needs to be used with care. It is applicable to the Bedouin and to a section of the urban and effendi classes; it is inappropriate as a description of the rural mass of the population, the fellaheen. The whole population spoke Arabic, usually corrupted by dialects bearing traces of words of other origin, but it was only the Bedouin who habitually thought of themselves as Arabs. Western travelers from the sixteenth century onwards make the same distinction, and the word 'Arab' almost always refers to them exclusively.... Gradually it was realized that there remained a substantial stratum of the pre-Israelite peasantry, and that the oldest element among the peasants were not 'Arabs' in the sense of having entered the country with or after the conquerors of the seventh century, had been there already when the Arabs came.\" ^ Encyclopedia Britannica , The term 'Palestinian' : \"The Arabs of Palestine began widely using the term Palestinian starting in the pre–World War I period to indicate the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people. But after 1948—and even more so after 1967—for Palestinians themselves the term came to signify not only a place of origin but also, more importantly, a sense of a shared past and future in the form of a Palestinian state.\" ^ Albala, Ken (25 May 2011). Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia: [4 volumes] . Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-0-313-37627-6 . Palestinians represent a highly homogenized community who share one cultural and ethnic identity: South Levantine Arabic ^ Christison, Kathleen (2001). Perceptions of Palestine: Their Influence on U.S. Middle East Policy . University of California Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-520-92236-5 . ^ Andrea, Alfred J. ; Overfield, James H. (2011). The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume II: Since 1500 (7th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 437. ISBN 978-1-133-42004-0 . ^ Khalidi 2010 , pp. 24–26 ^ Scham, Paul; Salem, Walid; Pogrund, Benjamin, eds. (2005). Shared Histories: A Palestinian-Israeli Dialogue . Left Coast Press. pp. 69– 73. ISBN 978-1-59874-013-4 . Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. ^ Cite error: The named reference Likhovski was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Gelvin, James L. (2014). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War (3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-107-47077-4 . Archived from the original on 29 November 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . Palestinian nationalism emerged during the interwar period in response to Zionist immigration and settlement. The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some \"other\". Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose. As we have seen, Zionism itself arose in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. It would be perverse to judge Zionism as somehow less valid than European anti-Semitism or those nationalisms. . . Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the \"conquest of land\" and the \"conquest of labor\" slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian \"other\". ^ Lewis 1999 , p. 169 ^ Cite error: The named reference Khalidip18 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Albanese, Francesca; Takkenberg, Lex (2020). Palestinian Refugees in International Law . Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-19-878404-3 . Retrieved 1 October 2025 . ^ \"Who Represents the Palestinians Officially Before the World Community?\" . Institute for Middle East Understanding. 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 . Retrieved 27 July 2007 . ^ \"Palestinian Authority definition\" . TheFreeDictionary.com . Archived from the original on 15 August 2020 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ Farsoun, Samih K. (2005). \"Palestinian Diaspora\" . In Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian A. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World . Springer. pp. 234–. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9 . Archived from the original on 29 November 2023 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ Dowty, Alan (2004). Critical issues in Israeli society . Greenwood. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-275-97320-9 . ^ \"Where We Work – West Bank\" . UNRWA. 1 January 2012. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ Arzt, Donna E. (1997). Refugees into Citizens – Palestinians and the end of the Arab-Israeli conflict . Council on Foreign Relations. p. 74 . ISBN 978-0-87609-194-4 . ^ \"Palestinians at the end of 2012\" (PDF) . Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics . 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2020 . Retrieved 11 November 2013 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Arab national group of the Levant \"Palestinian\" redirects here. For other uses, see Palestinian (disambiguation) . Not to be confused with Philistines . Ethnic group Palestinians ( Arabic : الفلسطينيون , romanized : al-Filasṭīniyyūn ) are an Arab national group native to the region of Palestine , descended from those who have inhabited the area over the millennia. They represent a highly homogenized community who share a cultural and ethnic identity , and close linguistic and cultural ties with other Levantine Arabs . In 1919, Palestinian Muslims and Christians constituted 90 percent of the population of Palestine, just before the third wave of Jewish immigration and the setting up of British Mandatory Palestine after World War I . Opposition to Jewish immigration spurred the consolidation of a unified national identity , though Palestinian society was still fragmented by regional, class, religious, and family differences. The history of the Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars. For some, the term \" Palestinian \" is used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs from the late 19th century and in the pre-World War I period, while others assert the Palestinian identity encompasses the heritage of all eras from pre- biblical times up to the Ottoman period . After the Israeli Declaration of Independence , the 1948 Palestinian expulsion , and more so after the 1967 Palestinian exodus , the term \"Palestinian\" evolved into a sense of a shared future in the form of aspirations for a Palestinian state . Though the concept of Palestinian citizenship for the purpose of international law has been revived, the in fieri realization of self-determination is still insufficient, thus Palestinians remain over the threshold of eligibility to receive international protection as refugees and stateless persons. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an umbrella organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before international states. The Palestinian National Authority , officially established in 1994 as a result of the Oslo Accords , is an interim administrative body nominally responsible for governance in Palestinian population centres in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People . Despite various wars and exoduses , roughly one half of the world's Palestinian population continues to reside in the territory of former Mandatory Palestine , now encompassing Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . In Israel proper, Palestinians constitute almost 21 percent of the population as part of its Arab citizens . Many are Palestinian refugees or internally displaced Palestinians , including over 1.4 million in the Gaza Strip, over 870,000 in the West Bank, and around 250,000 in Israel proper. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora , more than half are stateless , lacking legal citizenship in any country. 2.3 million of the diaspora population are registered as refugees in neighboring Jordan , most of whom hold Jordanian citizenship; over 1 million live between Syria and Lebanon , and about 750,000 live in Saudi Arabia , with Chile holding the largest Palestinian diaspora concentration (around half a million) outside of the Arab world . ^ \"Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) Presents the Conditions of Palestinian Populations on the Occasion of the International Population Day, 11/07/2022\" (PDF) . Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). 7 July 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 November 2023 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . ^ \"Where We Work – Gaza Strip\" . UNRWA. August 2023. Archived from the original on 25 April 2020 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ \"PCBS reports Palestinian population growth to 4.81 million\" . Ma'an News Agency . 11 July 2016. Archived from the original on 13 July 2016. ^ \"West Bank\" . The World Fact Book . CIA. Archived from the original on 22 July 2021. ^ \"PCBS: The Palestinians at the end of 2015\" . Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics . 30 December 2015. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. ^ \"Where We Work – Jordan\" . UNRWA . Archived from the original on 31 March 2019 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ \"Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) Press Release\" (PDF) . Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics . Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Israel's population approaches 9.7 million as 2022 comes to an end\" . The Times of Israel . 29 December 2022. Archived from the original on 2 June 2023 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . ^ \"Where We Work UNRWA\" . UNRWA . Archived from the original on 7 July 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Zalaquett pone a Chile como modelo de convivencia palestino-judía\" [Zalaquett sets Chile as a model for Palestinian-Jewish coexistence]. Diario La Nación (in Spanish). 16 October 2009. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016 . Retrieved 27 December 2024 . ^ \"Cómo llegó Chile a tener la mayor comunidad de palestinos fuera de Israel y del mundo árabe\" [How Chile came to have the largest Palestinian community outside Israel and the Arab world]. BBC Mundo (in Spanish). 6 November 2023 . Retrieved 27 December 2024 . ^ \"Arab, Palestinan\" . Joshua Project. Archived from the original on 15 June 2024 . Retrieved 26 June 2016 . ^ \"U.S. Census website\" . United States Census Bureau . Archived from the original on 27 December 1996 . Retrieved 22 April 2009 . ^ \"Palästinenser in Deutschland – \"Das ist nicht mehr mein Land\" \" . fr.de (in German). 12 February 2024 . Retrieved 16 February 2025 . ^ \"Palestinians Living in UAE Uncertain Over Peace Deal With Israel\" . The Media Line . 16 August 2020. Archived from the original on 24 May 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Lebanon conducts first-ever census of Palestinian refugees\" . Jordan Times . 21 December 2017. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Migration Stock in Egypt 2022\" (PDF) . International Organization for Migration (IOM) . Retrieved 15 September 2024 . ^ \"Palestinians Open Kuwaiti Embassy\" . Al Monitor . 23 May 2013. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013 . Retrieved 23 May 2013 . ^ Jorge Alberto Amaya (23 July 2015). \"Los Árabes y Palestinos en Honduras: su establecimiento e impacto en la sociedad hondureña contemporánea: 1900–2009\" [The Arabs and Palestinians in Honduras: Their Establishment and Impact on Contemporary Honduran Society: 1900–2009] (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. En suma, los árabes y palestinos, arribados al país a finales del siglo XIX, dominan hoy en día la economía del país, y cada vez están emergiendo como actores importantes de la clase política hondureña y forman, después de Chile, la mayor concentración de descendientes de palestinos en América Latina, con entre 150,000 y 200,000 personas. [In short, Arabs and Palestinians, who arrived in the country at the end of the 19th century, dominate the country's economy today and are increasingly emerging as important players in the Honduran political class, forming, after Chile, the largest concentration of Palestinian descendants in Latin America, with between 150,000 and 200,000 people.] ^ \"El Salvador's Palestinian connection\" . 26 February 2006. Archived from the original on 15 October 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ \"Factsheet: Palestinian Refugees in Iraq\" . Al Awda California . Archived from the original on 20 July 2009 . Retrieved 16 June 2009 . ^ \"Estatísticas gerais: imigrantes e descendentes\" . memorialdoimigrante.org . Archived from the original on 23 March 2009 . Retrieved 27 May 2009 . ^ \"Ethnic or cultural origin by gender and age: Canada, provinces and territories\" . Statistics Canada . 26 October 2022 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . ^ \"Tabiiyete Göre Yabancı Nüfus\" [Foreign Population by Nationality] (in Turkish). Turkish Statistical Institute . Retrieved 12 October 2025 . ^ \"The Palestinian Diaspora in Europe\" . Archived from the original on 18 June 2020 . Retrieved 22 June 2011 . ^ \"Did you know that ... Palestinians in the Netherlands\" . Palestine Link . Archived from the original on 4 November 2018 . Retrieved 4 November 2018 . ^ \"Handing on the key: Palestians in Australia\" (PDF) . Immigration Museum. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 November 2012 . Retrieved 21 May 2011 . ^ \"Australians' Ancestries\" (PDF) . Australian Bureau of Statistics . 2001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 March 2019 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ Benito, Miguel. \"Palestinier\" . Invandringens encyklopedi . Archived from the original on 29 July 2013 . Retrieved 23 February 2013 . ^ \"UNHCR Global Appeal 2014–2015: Algeria\" (PDF) . United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees . 2015 . Retrieved 20 September 2024 . ^ Dowty 2023 , 3. The Arab Story to 1914: \"Palestine was part of the first wave of conquest following Muhammad's death in 632 CE; Jerusalem fell to the Caliph Umar in 638. The indigenous population, descended from Jews, other Semitic groups, and non-Semitic groups such as the Philistines, had been mostly Christianized. Over succeeding centuries it was Islamicized, and Arabic replaced Aramaic (a Semitic tongue closely related to Hebrew) as the dominant language\" Dowty 2023 , 10. The Perfect Conflict: \"Palestinians are the descendants of all the indigenous peoples who lived in Palestine over the centuries; since the seventh century, they have been predominantly Muslim in religion and almost completely Arab in language and culture.\" Gelvin 2021 , p. 100: \"Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the 'conquest of land' and the 'conquest of labor' slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian 'other'.\" Danver 2015 , p. 554: \"The origin of the term Palestinian is uncertain. Some historians connect it to the Philistines, a biblical people that resided on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea as early as the twelfth century B.C.E. Thus, Palestinians are considered by some to be the indigenous people of present-day Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. Other scholars dispute this view, asserting that Jews and others resided in Palestine—usually defined as the narrow strip of land bordered by the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea—long before these Arabs arrived in the seventh century.\" Esposito 2004 , Arab-Israeli Conflict: \"Although their leaders welcomed the Jews as refugees, many Palestinians (the indigenous Arab population of Palestine) viewed the arrival of Jewish settlers as a threat to their security and to their land.\" Falk 2017 , pp. 14, 201: \"Although at the beginning of the twentieth century a considerable proportion of the Palestinian Arabs were evidently immigrants from adjacent countries, some may be the descendents of the ancient inhabitants of the country. Thus, some Palestinian Arabs, like the Jews, may claim a genetic relationship to the ancient inhabitants of the country.\"; \"Even though not a race in a biological sense, political Zionism, after a century of attempts to prove contemporary Jews' material, biological relationships – not merely their spiritual, cultural ones – to the ancient people of the biblical stories, in spite of widespread interspersing with local communities, finally has succeeded. It is tragic that Zionism, as well as Arab Nationalism, have failed to recognize the Palestinians, many of whom similarly appear to share phylogenetic relations to the historic inhabitants of the country, as equal partners.\" Tanous, Osama; Asi, Yara; Hammoudeh, Weeam; Mills, David; Wispelwey, Bram (2023). \"Structural racism and the health of Palestinian citizens of Israel\" . Global Public Health . 18 (1) 2214608. doi : 10.1080/17441692.2023.2214608 . PMID 37209155 . On the other hand, Palestinians, the vast majority and indigenous inhabitants of the land, were negatively defined by what they were not; i.e. as non-Jewish communities with civil and religious rights, but not political or territorial rights to the land ^ Nassar 2019 : \"The emergence of Palestinians as a national group [...] cannot be solely based on biological roots or continuous habitation of their homeland, but primarily on when, and how they began to imagine and articulate themselves as belonging to a national group. At the same time, such imagination ought to be considered within the historical context in which it developed. In other words, the fact that the people whom we call Palestinians today are the descendants of the various groups that inhabited Palestine throughout its history is not enough to unpack the history of their national identity.\" Jabareen 2002 , p. 214: \"This blurring has led to a situation in which characteristics of the State of Israel are presented as characteristics of a nation-state, even though (de facto) it is a binational state, and Palestinian citizens are presented as an ethnic minority group although they are a homeland majority.\" Hussain & Shumock 2006 , p. 269ff, 284: \"The Palestinians...are an ethnic minority in their country of residence.\" Nasser 2013 , p. 69: \"What is noteworthy here is the use of a general category 'Arabs', instead of a more specific one of 'Palestinians.' By turning to a general category, the particularity of Palestinians, among other ethnic and national groups, is erased and in its place Jordanian identity is implanted.\" Haklai 2011 , p. 112: \"...throughout the 1990s and 2000s a growing number of PAI political organizations have been increasingly promoting Palestinian consciousness, advancing ethnonationalist objectives, and demanding recognition of collective group rights.\" Abu-Rayya, Hisham Motkal; Abu-Rayya, Maram Hussien (2009). \"Acculturation, religious identity, and psychological well-being among Palestinians in Israel\". International Journal of Intercultural Relations . 33 (4): 325– 331. doi : 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.05.006 . ISSN 0147-1767 . Moilanen-Miller, Heather. \"The Construction of Identity through Tradition: Palestinians in the Detroit Metro Area\" . International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Science . 4 (5): 143– 150. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 2 December 2015 . ^ New York Times 1978 : \"The Palestinians are an Arab people, largely Moslem but with important numbers of Christians, who live in, once lived in, or trace their descent through parents or grandparents to the land once known as Palestine, which came under a British mandate in 1922 and now is the land of Israel, the West Bank of the Jordan and the Gaza Strip.\" Yakobson & Rubinstein 2009 , p. 179: \"Of course, the notion that the Palestinians are an Arab people, an integral part of the Arab world ('the Arab nation'), is wholly legitimate and natural, given the history and culture of the people in question.\" Wilmer 2021 , p. 14: \"People know who they are, where they live, and where their families have lived for centuries or millennia.\" Abu-Libdeh, Turnpenny & Teebi 2012 , p. 700: \"Palestinians are an indigenous people who either live in, or originate from, historical Palestine.... Although the Muslims guaranteed security and allowed religious freedom to all inhabitants of the region, the majority converted to Islam and adopted Arab culture.\" Encyclopedia Britannica , From the Arab conquest to 1900 : \"The process of Arabization and Islamization was gaining momentum there. It was one of the mainstays of Umayyad power and was important in their struggle against both Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula.... Conversions arising from convenience as well as conviction then increased. These conversions to Islam, together with a steady tribal inflow from the desert, changed the religious character of Palestine's inhabitants. The predominantly Christian population gradually became predominantly Muslim and Arabic-speaking. At the same time, during the early years of Muslim control of the city, a small permanent Jewish population returned to Jerusalem after a 500-year absence.\" Lewis 1999 , p. 169 Parkes 1970 , pp. 209–10: \"the word 'Arab' needs to be used with care. It is applicable to the Bedouin and to a section of the urban and effendi classes; it is inappropriate as a description of the rural mass of the population, the fellaheen. The whole population spoke Arabic, usually corrupted by dialects bearing traces of words of other origin, but it was only the Bedouin who habitually thought of themselves as Arabs. Western travelers from the sixteenth century onwards make the same distinction, and the word 'Arab' almost always refers to them exclusively.... Gradually it was realized that there remained a substantial stratum of the pre-Israelite peasantry, and that the oldest element among the peasants were not 'Arabs' in the sense of having entered the country with or after the conquerors of the seventh century, had been there already when the Arabs came.\" ^ Encyclopedia Britannica , The term 'Palestinian' : \"The Arabs of Palestine began widely using the term Palestinian starting in the pre–World War I period to indicate the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people. But after 1948—and even more so after 1967—for Palestinians themselves the term came to signify not only a place of origin but also, more importantly, a sense of a shared past and future in the form of a Palestinian state.\" ^ Albala, Ken (25 May 2011). Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia: [4 volumes] . Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-0-313-37627-6 . Palestinians represent a highly homogenized community who share one cultural and ethnic identity: South Levantine Arabic ^ Christison, Kathleen (2001). Perceptions of Palestine: Their Influence on U.S. Middle East Policy . University of California Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-520-92236-5 . ^ Andrea, Alfred J. ; Overfield, James H. (2011). The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume II: Since 1500 (7th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 437. ISBN 978-1-133-42004-0 . ^ Khalidi 2010 , pp. 24–26 ^ Scham, Paul; Salem, Walid; Pogrund, Benjamin, eds. (2005). Shared Histories: A Palestinian-Israeli Dialogue . Left Coast Press. pp. 69– 73. ISBN 978-1-59874-013-4 . Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. ^ Cite error: The named reference Likhovski was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Gelvin, James L. (2014). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War (3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-107-47077-4 . Archived from the original on 29 November 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . Palestinian nationalism emerged during the interwar period in response to Zionist immigration and settlement. The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some \"other\". Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose. As we have seen, Zionism itself arose in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. It would be perverse to judge Zionism as somehow less valid than European anti-Semitism or those nationalisms. . . Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the \"conquest of land\" and the \"conquest of labor\" slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian \"other\". ^ Lewis 1999 , p. 169 ^ Cite error: The named reference Khalidip18 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Albanese, Francesca; Takkenberg, Lex (2020). Palestinian Refugees in International Law . Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-19-878404-3 . Retrieved 1 October 2025 . ^ \"Who Represents the Palestinians Officially Before the World Community?\" . Institute for Middle East Understanding. 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007 . Retrieved 27 July 2007 . ^ \"Palestinian Authority definition\" . TheFreeDictionary.com . Archived from the original on 15 August 2020 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ Farsoun, Samih K. (2005). \"Palestinian Diaspora\" . In Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian A. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World . Springer. pp. 234–. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9 . Archived from the original on 29 November 2023 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ Dowty, Alan (2004). Critical issues in Israeli society . Greenwood. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-275-97320-9 . ^ \"Where We Work – West Bank\" . UNRWA. 1 January 2012. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021 . Retrieved 21 September 2024 . ^ Arzt, Donna E. (1997). Refugees into Citizens – Palestinians and the end of the Arab-Israeli conflict . Council on Foreign Relations. p. 74 . ISBN 978-0-87609-194-4 . ^ \"Palestinians at the end of 2012\" (PDF) . Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics . 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2020 . Retrieved 11 November 2013 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Genocide of indigenous peoples",
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   "lead_before": "Elimination of indigenous inhabitants The genocide of indigenous peoples , colonial genocide , or settler genocide is the elimination of indigenous peoples as a part of the process of colonialism . According to certain genocide experts, including Raphael Lemkin – who coined the term Genocide – colonialism is intimately connected with genocide. Lemkin saw genocide as a two-stage process: (1) the destruction of the targeted group's way of life, followed by (2) the perpetrators' imposition of their own national pattern. Other scholars view genocide as associated with but distinct from settler colonialism . The expansion of various Western European colonial powers such as the British and Spanish empires and the subsequent establishment of colonies on indigenous territories frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against indigenous groups in Europe , the Americas , Africa , Asia , and Oceania . The designation of specific events as genocidal is frequently controversial. Lemkin originally intended a broad definition that encompassed colonial violence, but in order to pass the 1948 Genocide Convention , he narrowed his definition to physical and biological destruction (as opposed to cultural genocide ) and added the requirement of genocidal intent . Although some scholars use the Genocide Convention definition, others have \"criticized [it] as a highly flawed law for its overemphasis on intent, the imprecision of a key phrase 'destruction in whole or in part', and the narrow exclusivity of the groups protected\"—factors which reduce its applicability to anti-indigenous violence. ^ Benvenuto, Jeff; Woolford, Andrew; Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). \"Introduction\". Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America . Duke University Press . doi : 10.1515/9780822376149-002 . ISBN 978-0-8223-7614-9 . S2CID 243002850 . Archived from the original on 28 May 2022 . Retrieved 28 May 2022 . ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (2021). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies . Routledge . p. Acknowledgements. ISBN 978-1-000-41177-5 . Archived from the original on 16 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 May 2022 . ^ Anderson, E. N. ; Anderson, Barbara (2020). Complying with Genocide: The Wolf You Feed . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 12. ISBN 978-1-7936-3460-3 . Archived from the original on 16 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 May 2022 . ^ Wolfe, Patrick (1 December 2006). \"Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native\" . Journal of Genocide Research . 8 (4): 387– 409. doi : 10.1080/14623520601056240 . ISSN 1462-3528 . S2CID 143873621 . ^ Browning, Christopher R. (2022). \"Yehuda Bauer, the Concepts of Holocaust and Genocide, and the Issue of Settler Colonialism\" . The Journal of Holocaust Research . 36 (1): 30– 38. doi : 10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985 . ISSN 2578-5648 . S2CID 246652960 . Archived from the original on 28 May 2022 . Retrieved 28 May 2022 . ^ Maybury-Lewis 2002 , p. 45. ^ Bryant, Michael (2020). \"Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin\" . Genocide Studies and Prevention . 14 (1): 21– 39. doi : 10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632 . ISSN 1911-0359 . Archived from the original on 3 December 2021 . Retrieved 24 January 2025 . Raphaël Lemkin believed settler colonialism was intimately connected with genocide. ^ Moses 2008a , pp. 8–9: \"Extra-European colonial cases also featured prominently in this projected global history of genocide. In 'Part III: Modern Times,' he wrote the following numbered chapters: (1) Genocide by the Germans against the Native Africans; (3) Belgian Congo; (11) Hereros; (13) Hottentots; (16) Genocide against the American Indians; (25) Latin America; (26) Genocide against the Aztecs; (27) Yucatan; (28) Genocide against the Incas; (29) Genocide against the Maoris of New Zealand; (38) Tasmanians; (40) S.W. Africa; and finally, (41) Natives of Australia ... While Lemkin's linking of genocide and colonialism may surprise those who think that his neologism was modeled after the Holocaust of European Jewry, an investigation of his intellectual development reveals that the concept is the culmination of a long tradition of European legal and political critique of colonization and empire.\" ^ Forge 2012 , p. 77. ^ Moses 2004 , p. 27. ^ Maybury-Lewis 2002 , p. 48. ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (2021). \" 'No Savage Shall Inherit the Land': Civilian-driven Violence in the Making of Settler Genocides\". In Adhikari, Mohamed (ed.). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-003-01555-0 . ^ Hitchcock & Koperski 2008 , pp. 577–82. ^ Novic, Elisa (20 October 2016). \"The Concept of Cultural Genocide: A Historical–Legal Perspective\" . The Concept of Cultural Genocide: An International Law Perspective . Oxford University Press . p. 8. doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198787167.003.0002 . ISBN 978-0-19-878716-7 . Retrieved 17 January 2024 . Doctrinal opinions can be split into two categories: those who advocate for a broader understanding of the crime, as Larry May does, and those who consider, on the basis of the 1948 Genocide Convention, that genocide should be thought of exclusively in physical and biological terms while cultural genocide should rather be addressed as a human rights issue, per William A. Schabas. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Elimination of indigenous inhabitants The genocide of indigenous peoples , colonial genocide , or settler genocide is the elimination of indigenous peoples as a part of the process of colonialism . According to certain genocide experts, including Raphael Lemkin – who coined the term Genocide – colonialism is intimately connected with genocide. Lemkin saw genocide as a two-stage process: (1) the destruction of the targeted group's way of life, followed by (2) the perpetrators' imposition of their own national pattern. Other scholars view genocide as associated with but distinct from settler colonialism . The expansion of various Western European colonial powers such as the British and Spanish empires and the subsequent establishment of colonies on indigenous territories frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against indigenous groups in Europe , the Americas , Africa , Asia , and Oceania . The designation of specific events as genocidal is frequently controversial. Lemkin originally intended a broad definition that encompassed colonial violence, but in order to pass the 1948 Genocide Convention , he narrowed his definition to physical and biological destruction (as opposed to cultural genocide ) and added the requirement of genocidal intent . Although some scholars use the Genocide Convention definition, others have \"criticized [it] as a highly flawed law for its overemphasis on intent, the imprecision of a key phrase 'destruction in whole or in part', and the narrow exclusivity of the groups protected\"—factors which reduce its applicability to anti-indigenous violence. ^ Benvenuto, Jeff; Woolford, Andrew; Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). \"Introduction\". Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America . Duke University Press . doi : 10.1515/9780822376149-002 . ISBN 978-0-8223-7614-9 . S2CID 243002850 . Archived from the original on 28 May 2022 . Retrieved 28 May 2022 . ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (2021). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies . Routledge . p. Acknowledgements. ISBN 978-1-000-41177-5 . Archived from the original on 16 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 May 2022 . ^ Anderson, E. N. ; Anderson, Barbara (2020). Complying with Genocide: The Wolf You Feed . Rowman & Littlefield . p. 12. ISBN 978-1-7936-3460-3 . Archived from the original on 16 March 2023 . Retrieved 27 May 2022 . ^ Wolfe, Patrick (1 December 2006). \"Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native\" . Journal of Genocide Research . 8 (4): 387– 409. doi : 10.1080/14623520601056240 . ISSN 1462-3528 . S2CID 143873621 . ^ Browning, Christopher R. (2022). \"Yehuda Bauer, the Concepts of Holocaust and Genocide, and the Issue of Settler Colonialism\" . The Journal of Holocaust Research . 36 (1): 30– 38. doi : 10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985 . ISSN 2578-5648 . S2CID 246652960 . Archived from the original on 28 May 2022 . Retrieved 28 May 2022 . ^ Maybury-Lewis 2002 , p. 45. ^ Bryant, Michael (2020). \"Canaries in the Mineshaft of American Democracy: North American Settler Genocide in the Thought of Raphaël Lemkin\" . Genocide Studies and Prevention . 14 (1): 21– 39. doi : 10.5038/1911-9933.14.1.1632 . ISSN 1911-0359 . Archived from the original on 3 December 2021 . Retrieved 24 January 2025 . Raphaël Lemkin believed settler colonialism was intimately connected with genocide. ^ Moses 2008a , pp. 8–9: \"Extra-European colonial cases also featured prominently in this projected global history of genocide. In 'Part III: Modern Times,' he wrote the following numbered chapters: (1) Genocide by the Germans against the Native Africans; (3) Belgian Congo; (11) Hereros; (13) Hottentots; (16) Genocide against the American Indians; (25) Latin America; (26) Genocide against the Aztecs; (27) Yucatan; (28) Genocide against the Incas; (29) Genocide against the Maoris of New Zealand; (38) Tasmanians; (40) S.W. Africa; and finally, (41) Natives of Australia ... While Lemkin's linking of genocide and colonialism may surprise those who think that his neologism was modeled after the Holocaust of European Jewry, an investigation of his intellectual development reveals that the concept is the culmination of a long tradition of European legal and political critique of colonization and empire.\" ^ Forge 2012 , p. 77. ^ Moses 2004 , p. 27. ^ Maybury-Lewis 2002 , p. 48. ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (2021). \" 'No Savage Shall Inherit the Land': Civilian-driven Violence in the Making of Settler Genocides\". In Adhikari, Mohamed (ed.). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-003-01555-0 . ^ Hitchcock & Koperski 2008 , pp. 577–82. ^ Novic, Elisa (20 October 2016). \"The Concept of Cultural Genocide: A Historical–Legal Perspective\" . The Concept of Cultural Genocide: An International Law Perspective . Oxford University Press . p. 8. doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198787167.003.0002 . ISBN 978-0-19-878716-7 . Retrieved 17 January 2024 . Doctrinal opinions can be split into two categories: those who advocate for a broader understanding of the crime, as Larry May does, and those who consider, on the basis of the 1948 Genocide Convention, that genocide should be thought of exclusively in physical and biological terms while cultural genocide should rather be addressed as a human rights issue, per William A. Schabas. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Colonialism",
   "pageid": 7299,
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   "lead_before": "Control by distant groups A 1665 illustration of a Dutch East India Company factory in Hugli-Chuchura , depicting various elements of colonialism, including its hierarchies and impact on the colonized and their lands Colonialism is the practice of extending and maintaining political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a territory and its people by another people in pursuit of interests defined in an often distant metropole , who also claim superiority. While frequently an imperialist project, colonialism functions through differentiating between the targeted land and people, and that of the colonizers (a critical component of colonization ). Rather than annexation , this typically culminates in organizing the colonized into colonies separate to the colonizers' metropole. Colonialism sometimes deepens by developing settler colonialism , whereby settlers from one or multiple colonizing metropoles occupy a territory with the intention of partially or completely supplanting the existing Indigenous peoples , possibly amounting to genocide . While different forms of colonialism have existed around the world, the concept has been developed as a description of European colonial empires of the modern era . These spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I. European colonialism employed mercantilism and chartered companies , and established complex colonialities. Colonialism was in some cases justified with beliefs of having a civilizing mission to cultivate land and life, historically often rooted in the belief of a Christian mission . Decolonization , which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975. Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development , regime types , and state capacity . Some academics have used the term neocolonialism to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period. ^ Cite error: The named reference c602 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Osterhammel16 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Stanford was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Rogers was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Schaefer was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Jacobs 2009 p. was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Philip T. Hoffman (2015). Why Did Europe Conquer the World? . Princeton University Press. pp. 2– 3. ISBN 978-1-4008-6584-0 . ^ Strang, David (1991). \"Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500–1987\" . International Studies Quarterly . 35 (4): 429– 454. doi : 10.2307/2600949 . ISSN 0020-8833 . JSTOR 2600949 . ^ Strang, David (1990). \"From Dependency to Sovereignty: An Event History Analysis of Decolonization 1870-1987\" . American Sociological Review . 55 (6): 846– 860. doi : 10.2307/2095750 . ISSN 0003-1224 . JSTOR 2095750 . ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2001). \"The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation\" . American Economic Review . 91 (5): 1369– 1401. doi : 10.1257/aer.91.5.1369 . ISSN 0002-8282 . ^ Nunn, Nathan (2009). \"The Importance of History for Economic Development\" . Annual Review of Economics . 1 (1): 65– 92. doi : 10.1146/annurev.economics.050708.143336 . ISSN 1941-1383 . ^ Nunn, Nathan (2020). \"The historical roots of economic development\" . Science . 367 (6485) eaaz9986. doi : 10.1126/science.aaz9986 . ISSN 0036-8075 . PMID 32217703 . ^ Lee, Alexander; Paine, Jack (2024). Colonial Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781009423526 . ISBN 978-1-009-42353-3 . ^ Gerring, John; Apfeld, Brendan; Wig, Tore; Tollefsen, Andreas Forø (2022). The Deep Roots of Modern Democracy: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Institutions . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781009115223 . ISBN 978-1-009-10037-3 . ^ Herbst, Jeffrey (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control - Second Edition . Vol. 149 (REV - Revised, 2 ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16414-4 . JSTOR j.ctt9qh05m . ^ Ali, Merima; Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge; Jiang, Boqian; Shifa, Abdulaziz B (2018). \"Colonial Legacy, State-building and the Salience of Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa\" . The Economic Journal . 129 (619): 1048– 1081. doi : 10.1111/ecoj.12595 . hdl : 2263/71163 . ISSN 0013-0133 . ^ Stanard, Matthew G. (2018). European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History . John Wiley & Sons . p. 5. ISBN 978-1-119-13013-0 . ^ Halperin, Sandra (2 December 2023). \"Neocolonialism\" . Britannica .",
   "lead_after": "Control by distant groups A 1665 illustration of a Dutch East India Company factory in Hugli-Chuchura , depicting various elements of colonialism, including its hierarchies and impact on the colonized and their lands Colonialism is the practice of extending and maintaining political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a territory and its people by another people in pursuit of interests defined in an often distant metropole , who also claim superiority. While frequently an imperialist project, colonialism functions through differentiating between the targeted land and people, and that of the colonizers (a critical component of colonization ). Rather than annexation , this typically culminates in organizing the colonized into colonies separate to the colonizers' metropole. Colonialism sometimes deepens by developing settler colonialism , whereby settlers from one or multiple colonizing metropoles occupy a territory with the intention of partially or completely supplanting the existing Indigenous peoples , possibly amounting to genocide . While different forms of colonialism have existed around the world, the concept has been developed as a description of European colonial empires of the modern era . These spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I. European colonialism employed mercantilism and chartered companies , and established complex colonialities. Colonialism was in some cases justified with beliefs of having a civilizing mission to cultivate land and life, historically often rooted in the belief of a Christian mission . Decolonization , which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975. Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development , regime types , and state capacity . Some academics have used the term neocolonialism to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period. ^ Cite error: The named reference c602 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Osterhammel16 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Stanford was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Rogers was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Schaefer was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Jacobs 2009 p. was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Philip T. Hoffman (2015). Why Did Europe Conquer the World? . Princeton University Press. pp. 2– 3. ISBN 978-1-4008-6584-0 . ^ Strang, David (1991). \"Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500–1987\" . International Studies Quarterly . 35 (4): 429– 454. doi : 10.2307/2600949 . ISSN 0020-8833 . JSTOR 2600949 . ^ Strang, David (1990). \"From Dependency to Sovereignty: An Event History Analysis of Decolonization 1870-1987\" . American Sociological Review . 55 (6): 846– 860. doi : 10.2307/2095750 . ISSN 0003-1224 . JSTOR 2095750 . ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2001). \"The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation\" . American Economic Review . 91 (5): 1369– 1401. doi : 10.1257/aer.91.5.1369 . ISSN 0002-8282 . ^ Nunn, Nathan (2009). \"The Importance of History for Economic Development\" . Annual Review of Economics . 1 (1): 65– 92. doi : 10.1146/annurev.economics.050708.143336 . ISSN 1941-1383 . ^ Nunn, Nathan (2020). \"The historical roots of economic development\" . Science . 367 (6485) eaaz9986. doi : 10.1126/science.aaz9986 . ISSN 0036-8075 . PMID 32217703 . ^ Lee, Alexander; Paine, Jack (2024). Colonial Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781009423526 . ISBN 978-1-009-42353-3 . ^ Gerring, John; Apfeld, Brendan; Wig, Tore; Tollefsen, Andreas Forø (2022). The Deep Roots of Modern Democracy: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Institutions . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781009115223 . ISBN 978-1-009-10037-3 . ^ Herbst, Jeffrey (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control - Second Edition . Vol. 149 (REV - Revised, 2 ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16414-4 . JSTOR j.ctt9qh05m . ^ Ali, Merima; Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge; Jiang, Boqian; Shifa, Abdulaziz B (2018). \"Colonial Legacy, State-building and the Salience of Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa\" . The Economic Journal . 129 (619): 1048– 1081. doi : 10.1111/ecoj.12595 . hdl : 2263/71163 . ISSN 0013-0133 . ^ Stanard, Matthew G. (2018). European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History . John Wiley & Sons . p. 5. ISBN 978-1-119-13013-0 . ^ Halperin, Sandra (2 December 2023). \"Neocolonialism\" . Britannica ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Settler colonialism",
   "pageid": 39353023,
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   "lead_before": "Colonialism which replaces natives with settlers Not to be confused with Replacement migration or Immigration country . American Progress (1872) by John Gast . Columbia , a personification of the United States , is shown leading civilization westward with American settlers , while Native Americans are displaced from their ancestral homeland on the left. Settler colonialism is a process by which settlers exercise colonial rule over a land and its indigenous peoples , transforming the land and replacing or assimilating its population with or into the society of the settlers. Assimilation has sometimes been conceptualized in biological terms such as the \"breeding of a minority population into a majority,\" but in other cases, such as in some parts of Latin America , biological mixing of populations was less problematic. Settler colonialism is a form of exogenous (of external origin) domination typically organized or supported by an imperial authority , which maintains a connection or control to the territory through the settlers. As settler colonialism entails the creation of a new society on the conquered territory, it lasts indefinitely unless decolonisation occurs through departure of the settler population or through reforms to colonial structures, settler-indigenous compacts and reconciliation processes. Settler colonial studies have often focused on English-speaking settler colonies in Australia and North America , which are close to the complete, prototypical form of settler colonialism. However, settler colonialism is not restricted to any specific culture; it has been practised by non-Europeans, and among European cultures, as in the case of Ireland . ^ Carey, Jane; Silverstein, Ben (2 January 2020). \"Thinking with and beyond settler colonial studies: new histories after the postcolonial\" . Postcolonial Studies . 23 (1): 1– 20. doi : 10.1080/13688790.2020.1719569 . hdl : 1885/204080 . ISSN 1368-8790 . S2CID 214046615 . The key phrases Wolfe coined here – that invasion is a 'structure not an event'; that settler colonial structures have a 'logic of elimination' of Indigenous peoples; that 'settlers come to stay' and that they 'destroy to replace' – have been taken up as the defining precepts of the field and are now cited by countless scholars across numerous disciplines. ^ Veracini, Lorenzo (2017). \"Introduction: Settler colonialism as a distinct mode of domination\" . In Cavanagh, Edward; Veracini, Lorenzo (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of the History of Settler Colonialism . Routledge . p. 4. ISBN 978-0-415-74216-0 . Settler colonialism is a relationship. It is related to colonialism but also inherently distinct from it. As a system defined by unequal relationships (like colonialism) where an exogenous collective aims to locally and permanently replace indigenous ones (unlike colonialism), settler colonialism has no geographical, cultural or chronological bounds. It is culturally nonspecific ... It can happen at any time, and everyone is a settler if they are part of a collective and sovereign displacement that moves to stay, that moves to establish a permanent homeland by way of displacement. ^ McKay, Dwanna L.; Vinyeta, Kirsten; Norgaard, Kari Marie (September 2020). \"Theorizing race and settler colonialism within U.S. sociology\" . Sociology Compass . 14 (9) e12821. doi : 10.1111/soc4.12821 . ISSN 1751-9020 . S2CID 225377069 . Settler-colonialism describes the logic and operation of power when colonizers arrive and settle on lands already inhabited by another group. Importantly, settler colonialism operates through a logic of elimination, seeking to eradicate the original inhabitants through violence and other genocidal acts and to replace the existing spiritual, epistemological, political, social, and ecological systems with those of the settler society. ^ Cite error: The named reference q872 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ McNeill, John Robert; Pomeranz, Kenneth, eds. (2017), The Cambridge World History , vol. 7 (Paperback ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 216, ISBN 978-1-108-40775-5 ^ McNeill, John Robert; Pomeranz, Kenneth, eds. (2017), The Cambridge World History , vol. 7 (Paperback ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 216– 218, ISBN 978-1-108-40775-5 ^ LeFevre, Tate. \"Settler Colonialism\" . oxfordbibliographies.com . Tate A. LeFevre . Retrieved 19 October 2017 . Though often conflated with colonialism more generally, settler colonialism is a distinct imperial formation. Both colonialism and settler colonialism are premised on exogenous domination, but only settler colonialism seeks to replace the original population of the colonized territory with a new society of settlers (usually from the colonial metropole). ^ Veracini, Lorenzo (October 2007). \"Settler Colonialism and Decolonisation\" . Borderlands . 6 (2). ^ Englert, Sai (2020). \"Settlers, Workers, and the Logic of Accumulation by Dispossession\". Antipode . 52 (6): 1647– 1666. Bibcode : 2020Antip..52.1647E . doi : 10.1111/anti.12659 . hdl : 1887/3220822 . S2CID 225643194 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Connolly was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Colonialism which replaces natives with settlers Not to be confused with Replacement migration or Immigration country . American Progress (1872) by John Gast . Columbia , a personification of the United States , is shown leading civilization westward with American settlers , while Native Americans are displaced from their ancestral homeland on the left. Settler colonialism is a process by which settlers exercise colonial rule over a land and its indigenous peoples , transforming the land and replacing or assimilating its population with or into the society of the settlers. Assimilation has sometimes been conceptualized in biological terms such as the \"breeding of a minority population into a majority,\" but in other cases, such as in some parts of Latin America , biological mixing of populations was less problematic. Settler colonialism is a form of exogenous (of external origin) domination typically organized or supported by an imperial authority , which maintains a connection or control to the territory through the settlers. As settler colonialism entails the creation of a new society on the conquered territory, it lasts indefinitely unless decolonisation occurs through departure of the settler population or through reforms to colonial structures, settler-indigenous compacts and reconciliation processes. Settler colonial studies have often focused on English-speaking settler colonies in Australia and North America , which are close to the complete, prototypical form of settler colonialism. However, settler colonialism is not restricted to any specific culture; it has been practised by non-Europeans, and among European cultures, as in the case of Ireland . ^ Carey, Jane; Silverstein, Ben (2 January 2020). \"Thinking with and beyond settler colonial studies: new histories after the postcolonial\" . Postcolonial Studies . 23 (1): 1– 20. doi : 10.1080/13688790.2020.1719569 . hdl : 1885/204080 . ISSN 1368-8790 . S2CID 214046615 . The key phrases Wolfe coined here – that invasion is a 'structure not an event'; that settler colonial structures have a 'logic of elimination' of Indigenous peoples; that 'settlers come to stay' and that they 'destroy to replace' – have been taken up as the defining precepts of the field and are now cited by countless scholars across numerous disciplines. ^ Veracini, Lorenzo (2017). \"Introduction: Settler colonialism as a distinct mode of domination\" . In Cavanagh, Edward; Veracini, Lorenzo (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of the History of Settler Colonialism . Routledge . p. 4. ISBN 978-0-415-74216-0 . Settler colonialism is a relationship. It is related to colonialism but also inherently distinct from it. As a system defined by unequal relationships (like colonialism) where an exogenous collective aims to locally and permanently replace indigenous ones (unlike colonialism), settler colonialism has no geographical, cultural or chronological bounds. It is culturally nonspecific ... It can happen at any time, and everyone is a settler if they are part of a collective and sovereign displacement that moves to stay, that moves to establish a permanent homeland by way of displacement. ^ McKay, Dwanna L.; Vinyeta, Kirsten; Norgaard, Kari Marie (September 2020). \"Theorizing race and settler colonialism within U.S. sociology\" . Sociology Compass . 14 (9) e12821. doi : 10.1111/soc4.12821 . ISSN 1751-9020 . S2CID 225377069 . Settler-colonialism describes the logic and operation of power when colonizers arrive and settle on lands already inhabited by another group. Importantly, settler colonialism operates through a logic of elimination, seeking to eradicate the original inhabitants through violence and other genocidal acts and to replace the existing spiritual, epistemological, political, social, and ecological systems with those of the settler society. ^ Cite error: The named reference q872 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ McNeill, John Robert; Pomeranz, Kenneth, eds. (2017), The Cambridge World History , vol. 7 (Paperback ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 216, ISBN 978-1-108-40775-5 ^ McNeill, John Robert; Pomeranz, Kenneth, eds. (2017), The Cambridge World History , vol. 7 (Paperback ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 216– 218, ISBN 978-1-108-40775-5 ^ LeFevre, Tate. \"Settler Colonialism\" . oxfordbibliographies.com . Tate A. LeFevre . Retrieved 19 October 2017 . Though often conflated with colonialism more generally, settler colonialism is a distinct imperial formation. Both colonialism and settler colonialism are premised on exogenous domination, but only settler colonialism seeks to replace the original population of the colonized territory with a new society of settlers (usually from the colonial metropole). ^ Veracini, Lorenzo (October 2007). \"Settler Colonialism and Decolonisation\" . Borderlands . 6 (2). ^ Englert, Sai (2020). \"Settlers, Workers, and the Logic of Accumulation by Dispossession\". Antipode . 52 (6): 1647– 1666. Bibcode : 2020Antip..52.1647E . doi : 10.1111/anti.12659 . hdl : 1887/3220822 . S2CID 225643194 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Connolly was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Sexual and gender-based violence in the October 7 attacks",
   "pageid": 75436869,
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   "lead_before": "Sexual and gender-based violence committed by Hamas Not to be confused with Sexual and gender-based violence against Palestinians during the Gaza war . During the October 7 attacks , Israeli women, girls and men were reportedly subjected to sexual violence , including rape and sexual assault , by Hamas or other Gazan militants. The militants involved in the attack are accused of having committed acts of gender-based violence , war crimes and crimes against humanity . Hamas has denied that its fighters engaged in sexual violence and has called for an impartial international investigation into the accusations. The extent of sexual violence perpetrated by militants, and whether it was planned and weaponised by the attackers, has been the subject of intense debate and controversy. Initially said to be \"dozens\" by Israeli authorities, they later clarified they could not provide a number. In January 2024, it was reported that several victims of sexual violence from 7 October and captivity in Gaza had come forward. A number of initial testimonies of sexual violence were later discredited, while Israel has accused international human rights groups of downplaying assault reports. As of January 2025, the former head of the security cases division in Israel's Southern District prosecutor's office said that no case was being filed due to a lack of evidence and complainants, which she said could be due to victims being dead or unwilling to come forward. The UN's Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict , Pramila Patten , reported in March 2024, with the \"full cooperation\" of the Israeli government, that there was \"clear and convincing information\" that Israeli hostages in Gaza had experienced sexual violence, and that there was \"reasonable grounds to believe that conflict-related sexual violence occurred during the 7 October attacks\". The report was not a full investigation, but designed to \"collect and verify allegations\", and the team stated that their conclusions fell below the legal threshold of being \"beyond a reasonable doubt \". The UN Commission of Inquiry (CoI) subsequently published a legally mandated report in June 2024 that stated there was \"a pattern indicative of sexual violence by Palestinian forces during the attack\", but that it was unable to independently verify allegations of rape due to Israel's obstruction of its investigation. It also found some of the allegations to be false and found \"no credible evidence\" that Palestinian militants had received direct orders to commit sexual violence. On 12 April 2024, the European Union sanctioned military and special forces wings of Hamas and the armed wing of Palestinian Islamic Jihad due to their responsibility for the alleged sexual violence on 7 October. The EU said the two groups' fighters \"committed widespread sexual and gender-based violence in a systematic manner, using it as a weapon of war.\" On 23 April 2024, the annual UN Secretary-General's report called on the Israeli government to allow access to \"relevant UN bodies to carry out a fully-fledged investigation into all alleged violations\". In July 2025, Hamas was added to the UN's sexual violence blacklist. ^ Gettleman, Sella & Schwartz 2023 : \"Meni Binyamin, the head of the International Crime Investigations Unit of the Israeli police, has said that \"dozens\" of women and some men were raped by Hamas militants on Oct. 7.\" \"Sexual Violence Evidence Against Hamas Is Mounting, but the Road to Court Is Still Long\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 23 November 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . Gettleman et al. 2023 Rubin 2023 ^ \"The battle to highlight crimes against women in Hamas' attack on Israel\" . ctech . 22 November 2023. Archived from the original on 27 November 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . \"Women in War Under International Law\" . en.idi.org.il (in Hebrew). 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . Lawless, Jill (5 November 2023). \"How international law applies to war, and why Hamas and Israel are both alleged to have broken it\" . Los Angeles Times . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 28 November 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ Williamson, Lucy (5 December 2023). \"Israel Gaza: Hamas raped and mutilated women on 7 October, BBC hears\" . BBC News . Retrieved 7 December 2023 . ^ \"Reasonable Grounds to Believe Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Occurred in Israel During 7 October Attacks, Senior UN Official Tells Security Council\" . press.un.org . Retrieved 8 November 2025 . ^ Rubin 2023 . ^ Lubell, Mayan (5 December 2023). \"Israeli accounts of sexual violence by Hamas rise but justice is remote\" . Reuters . Retrieved 14 December 2023 . ^ Fossum, Jack; Fossum, Sam (10 December 2023). \"Blinken calls sexual violence inflicted by Hamas 'beyond anything I've seen' \" . CNN . Archived from the original on 14 December 2023 . Retrieved 14 December 2023 . ^ Unit, Al Jazeera Investigative (21 March 2024). \"October 7: Forensic analysis shows Hamas abuses, many false Israeli claims\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 21 March 2024 . ^ Philp, Catherine; Weiniger, Gabrielle (1 August 2024). \"Israel says Hamas weaponised rape. Does the evidence add up?\" . The Times . Retrieved 1 August 2024 . ^ Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory (12 June 2024). Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, and Israel (PDF) (Report). Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. p. 27 . Retrieved 23 August 2024 . ^ Pokharel, Sugam; Nicholls, Catherine; Yeung, Jessie; Karadsheh, Jomana (12 June 2024). \"Inquiry says Israel and Hamas have both committed war crimes since October 7\" . CNN . ^ Gettleman, Sella & Schwartz 2023 : \"Meni Binyamin, the head of the International Crime Investigations Unit of the Israeli police, has said that \"dozens\" of women and some men were raped by Hamas militants on Oct. 7.\" McKernan, Bethan (18 January 2024). \"Evidence points to systematic use of rape and sexual violence by Hamas in 7 October attacks\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 21 June 2026 . Israel's top police investigations unit, Lahav 433...says it is unable to put a number on how many women and girls suffered gender-based violence. ^ \"Israel readies for pregnancies in female hostages raped by Hamas\" . The Jerusalem Post . 14 January 2024. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024 . Retrieved 27 January 2024 . Sokol, Sam (23 January 2024). \" 'Right now someone is being raped in a tunnel': Knesset hears of Hamas sex crimes\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 14 February 2024 . Retrieved 27 January 2024 . Kottasová, Ivana (6 December 2023). \"What we know about rape and sexual violence inflicted by Hamas during its terror attack on Israel\" . CNN International . Archived from the original on 30 January 2024 . Retrieved 29 January 2024 . Since then, dozens of hostages have been released from Gaza as part of a truce between Israel and Hamas and some have also mentioned sexual abuse during their testimonies. Kingsley et al. 2024 ^ \"In first, male October 7 survivor recounts rape at hands of Hamas terrorists\" . Times of Israel . 24 July 2024. Archived from the original on 25 July 2024 . Retrieved 26 July 2024 . ^ Grim, Ryan; Boguslaw, Daniel; Scahill, Jeremy (29 February 2024). \"Between the Hammer and the Anvil: The Story Behind the New York Times October 7 Exposé\" . The Intercept . Retrieved 1 April 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference zaka-problems was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Gupta, Arun (27 February 2024). \"American Media Keep Citing Zaka — Though Its October 7 Atrocity Stories are Discredited in Israel\" . The Intercept . Retrieved 1 April 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference new signs was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \" 'We don't have any complainants,' Israeli prosecutor says dept failed to gather evidence on Oct 7 'mass rape' claims\" . The New Indian Express . 6 January 2025 . Retrieved 3 May 2025 . ^ Besheer, Margaret (4 March 2024). \"UN Mission Says It Has 'Clear and Convincing' Information That Hamas Sexually Violated Women\" . Voice of America . Retrieved 13 March 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Borger was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference likely was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Lederer, Edith M. (4 March 2024). \"A UN envoy says there are 'reasonable grounds' to believe Hamas committed sexual violence on Oct. 7\" . AP News . Retrieved 13 March 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference OHCHR was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"EU sanctions Hamas wings over sexual violence on Oct. 7\" . Reuters . 12 April 2024 . Retrieved 12 April 2024 . ^ \"EU sanctions Hamas wings over sexual violence on Oct. 7\" . Al Arabiya . 12 April 2024 . Retrieved 12 April 2024 . ^ \"Conflict-Related Sexual Violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General 2023\" (PDF) . United Nations . 23 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 March 2025 . ^ \"UN fails to black list Hamas for rape, Israel condemns decision while US is silent\" . The Jerusalem Post . 24 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 May 2024 . ^ \"Israel fumes as UN secretary-general leaves Hamas off sexual violence blacklist\" . The Times of Israel . 23 April 2024. ISSN 0040-7909 . ^ Eichner, Itamar (23 April 2024). \"UN Secretary-General excludes Hamas from conflict-related sexual violence list\" . Ynetnews . Retrieved 24 May 2024 . ^ Rozovsky, Liza. \"For first time, UN blacklists Hamas for sexual violence on October 7, against hostages\" . Haaretz.com . Archived from the original on 20 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 November 2025 . ^ \"Conflict-related sexual violence - Report of the Secretary-General 2024 (S/2025/389)\" . UN . Retrieved 16 September 2025 .",
   "lead_after": "Sexual and gender-based violence committed by Hamas Not to be confused with Sexual and gender-based violence against Palestinians during the Gaza war . During the October 7 attacks , Israeli women, girls and men were reportedly subjected to sexual violence , including rape and sexual assault , by Hamas or other Gazan militants. The militants involved in the attack are accused of having committed acts of gender-based violence , war crimes and crimes against humanity . Hamas has denied that its fighters engaged in sexual violence and has called for an impartial international investigation into the accusations. The extent of sexual violence perpetrated by militants, and whether it was planned and weaponised by the attackers, has been the subject of intense debate and controversy. Initially said to be \"dozens\" by Israeli authorities, they later clarified they could not provide a number. In January 2024, it was reported that several victims of sexual violence from 7 October and captivity in Gaza had come forward. A number of initial testimonies of sexual violence were later discredited, while Israel has accused international human rights groups of downplaying assault reports. As of January 2025, the former head of the security cases division in Israel's Southern District prosecutor's office said that no case was being filed due to a lack of evidence and complainants, which she said could be due to victims being dead or unwilling to come forward. The UN's Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict , Pramila Patten , reported in March 2024, with the \"full cooperation\" of the Israeli government, that there was \"clear and convincing information\" that Israeli hostages in Gaza had experienced sexual violence, and that there was \"reasonable grounds to believe that conflict-related sexual violence occurred during the 7 October attacks\". The report was not a full investigation, but designed to \"collect and verify allegations\", and the team stated that their conclusions fell below the legal threshold of being \"beyond a reasonable doubt \". The UN Commission of Inquiry (CoI) subsequently published a legally mandated report in June 2024 that stated there was \"a pattern indicative of sexual violence by Palestinian forces during the attack\", but that it was unable to independently verify allegations of rape due to Israel's obstruction of its investigation. It also found some of the allegations to be false and found \"no credible evidence\" that Palestinian militants had received direct orders to commit sexual violence. On 12 April 2024, the European Union sanctioned military and special forces wings of Hamas and the armed wing of Palestinian Islamic Jihad due to their responsibility for the alleged sexual violence on 7 October. The EU said the two groups' fighters \"committed widespread sexual and gender-based violence in a systematic manner, using it as a weapon of war.\" On 23 April 2024, the annual UN Secretary-General's report called on the Israeli government to allow access to \"relevant UN bodies to carry out a fully-fledged investigation into all alleged violations\". In July 2025, Hamas was added to the UN's sexual violence blacklist. ^ Gettleman, Sella & Schwartz 2023 : \"Meni Binyamin, the head of the International Crime Investigations Unit of the Israeli police, has said that \"dozens\" of women and some men were raped by Hamas militants on Oct. 7.\" \"Sexual Violence Evidence Against Hamas Is Mounting, but the Road to Court Is Still Long\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 23 November 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . Gettleman et al. 2023 Rubin 2023 ^ \"The battle to highlight crimes against women in Hamas' attack on Israel\" . ctech . 22 November 2023. Archived from the original on 27 November 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . \"Women in War Under International Law\" . en.idi.org.il (in Hebrew). 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . Lawless, Jill (5 November 2023). \"How international law applies to war, and why Hamas and Israel are both alleged to have broken it\" . Los Angeles Times . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 28 November 2023 . Retrieved 29 November 2023 . ^ Williamson, Lucy (5 December 2023). \"Israel Gaza: Hamas raped and mutilated women on 7 October, BBC hears\" . BBC News . Retrieved 7 December 2023 . ^ \"Reasonable Grounds to Believe Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Occurred in Israel During 7 October Attacks, Senior UN Official Tells Security Council\" . press.un.org . Retrieved 8 November 2025 . ^ Rubin 2023 . ^ Lubell, Mayan (5 December 2023). \"Israeli accounts of sexual violence by Hamas rise but justice is remote\" . Reuters . Retrieved 14 December 2023 . ^ Fossum, Jack; Fossum, Sam (10 December 2023). \"Blinken calls sexual violence inflicted by Hamas 'beyond anything I've seen' \" . CNN . Archived from the original on 14 December 2023 . Retrieved 14 December 2023 . ^ Unit, Al Jazeera Investigative (21 March 2024). \"October 7: Forensic analysis shows Hamas abuses, many false Israeli claims\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 21 March 2024 . ^ Philp, Catherine; Weiniger, Gabrielle (1 August 2024). \"Israel says Hamas weaponised rape. Does the evidence add up?\" . The Times . Retrieved 1 August 2024 . ^ Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory (12 June 2024). Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, and Israel (PDF) (Report). Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. p. 27 . Retrieved 23 August 2024 . ^ Pokharel, Sugam; Nicholls, Catherine; Yeung, Jessie; Karadsheh, Jomana (12 June 2024). \"Inquiry says Israel and Hamas have both committed war crimes since October 7\" . CNN . ^ Gettleman, Sella & Schwartz 2023 : \"Meni Binyamin, the head of the International Crime Investigations Unit of the Israeli police, has said that \"dozens\" of women and some men were raped by Hamas militants on Oct. 7.\" McKernan, Bethan (18 January 2024). \"Evidence points to systematic use of rape and sexual violence by Hamas in 7 October attacks\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 21 June 2026 . Israel's top police investigations unit, Lahav 433...says it is unable to put a number on how many women and girls suffered gender-based violence. ^ \"Israel readies for pregnancies in female hostages raped by Hamas\" . The Jerusalem Post . 14 January 2024. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024 . Retrieved 27 January 2024 . Sokol, Sam (23 January 2024). \" 'Right now someone is being raped in a tunnel': Knesset hears of Hamas sex crimes\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 14 February 2024 . Retrieved 27 January 2024 . Kottasová, Ivana (6 December 2023). \"What we know about rape and sexual violence inflicted by Hamas during its terror attack on Israel\" . CNN International . Archived from the original on 30 January 2024 . Retrieved 29 January 2024 . Since then, dozens of hostages have been released from Gaza as part of a truce between Israel and Hamas and some have also mentioned sexual abuse during their testimonies. Kingsley et al. 2024 ^ \"In first, male October 7 survivor recounts rape at hands of Hamas terrorists\" . Times of Israel . 24 July 2024. Archived from the original on 25 July 2024 . Retrieved 26 July 2024 . ^ Grim, Ryan; Boguslaw, Daniel; Scahill, Jeremy (29 February 2024). \"Between the Hammer and the Anvil: The Story Behind the New York Times October 7 Exposé\" . The Intercept . Retrieved 1 April 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference zaka-problems was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Gupta, Arun (27 February 2024). \"American Media Keep Citing Zaka — Though Its October 7 Atrocity Stories are Discredited in Israel\" . The Intercept . Retrieved 1 April 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference new signs was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \" 'We don't have any complainants,' Israeli prosecutor says dept failed to gather evidence on Oct 7 'mass rape' claims\" . The New Indian Express . 6 January 2025 . Retrieved 3 May 2025 . ^ Besheer, Margaret (4 March 2024). \"UN Mission Says It Has 'Clear and Convincing' Information That Hamas Sexually Violated Women\" . Voice of America . Retrieved 13 March 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Borger was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference likely was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Lederer, Edith M. (4 March 2024). \"A UN envoy says there are 'reasonable grounds' to believe Hamas committed sexual violence on Oct. 7\" . AP News . Retrieved 13 March 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference OHCHR was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"EU sanctions Hamas wings over sexual violence on Oct. 7\" . Reuters . 12 April 2024 . Retrieved 12 April 2024 . ^ \"EU sanctions Hamas wings over sexual violence on Oct. 7\" . Al Arabiya . 12 April 2024 . Retrieved 12 April 2024 . ^ \"Conflict-Related Sexual Violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General 2023\" (PDF) . United Nations . 23 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 March 2025 . ^ \"UN fails to black list Hamas for rape, Israel condemns decision while US is silent\" . The Jerusalem Post . 24 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 May 2024 . ^ \"Israel fumes as UN secretary-general leaves Hamas off sexual violence blacklist\" . The Times of Israel . 23 April 2024. ISSN 0040-7909 . ^ Eichner, Itamar (23 April 2024). \"UN Secretary-General excludes Hamas from conflict-related sexual violence list\" . Ynetnews . Retrieved 24 May 2024 . ^ Rozovsky, Liza. \"For first time, UN blacklists Hamas for sexual violence on October 7, against hostages\" . Haaretz.com . Archived from the original on 20 August 2025 . Retrieved 8 November 2025 . ^ \"Conflict-related sexual violence - Report of the Secretary-General 2024 (S/2025/389)\" . UN . Retrieved 16 September 2025 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "October 7 attacks",
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   "lead_before": "2023 armed incursions and massacres in Israel This article is about the 2023 attacks on Israel from Gaza. For the war initiated by the attack, see Gaza war . For the October 7, 2001, United States attack on Afghanistan, see United States invasion of Afghanistan . Belligerents Hamas Palestinian allies : Palestinian Islamic Jihad Popular Resistance Committees Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Palestinian Mujahideen Movement Palestinian Freedom Movement Israel Commanders and leaders Yahya Sinwar Mohammed Deif Marwan Issa Wissam Farhat Rafa Salama Benjamin Netanyahu Yoav Gallant Herzi Halevi Yaron Finkelman Oded Basyuk Avi Rosenfeld Barak Hiram Roi Levy † Asaf Hamami † Yonatan Steinberg † Kobi Shabtai Itzik Buzukashvili † Jayar Davidov † Avi Amar † Ronen Bar Units involved Palestinian Joint Operations Room Al-Qassam Brigades Nukhba forces Al-Quds Brigades Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades Abu Ali Mustafa Brigades National Resistance Brigades Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Mujahideen Brigades Al-Ansar Brigades Palestinian civilian mobs Israel Defense Forces Israeli Ground Forces Golani Brigade 13th Battalion 51st Battalion Nahal Brigade Gaza Division Refaim Unit Caracal Battalion Home Front Command Israeli Navy Shayetet 13 916th Patrol Squadron (Ashdod) Snapir unit Air Defense Command Israel Police Israel Border Police Yamam Yoav Unit Shin Bet Armed Israeli civilians Strength Per Israel: ~6,000 entered Israel (3,800 Nukhba fighters, 2,200 civilians and other fighters) 1,000 rocket launch crews inside Gaza Israel Defense Forces 767 soldiers 12 tanks Casualties and losses Per Israel: 1,609 fighters killed 149 fighters captured 1,195 civilians and security forces killed 828+ civilians, 367+ security forces 3,400 civilians and security forces wounded 251 security forces and civilians captured The October 7 attacks were a series of coordinated armed incursions from the blockaded Gaza Strip into the Gaza envelope of southern Israel , carried out by Hamas and several other Palestinian militant groups in 2023, during the Jewish holiday of Simchat Torah . The attacks, which began the ongoing Gaza war , were the first large-scale invasion of Israeli territory since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . In response, Israel launched a large-scale military operation in Gaza . The attacks began with a barrage of at least 4,300 rockets launched into Israel and vehicle-transported and powered paraglider incursions into Israel. Hamas militants breached the Gaza–Israel barrier , attacking military bases and massacring civilians in 21 communities, including Be'eri , Kfar Aza , Nir Oz , Netiv Haasara , and Alumim . According to an Israel Defense Forces (IDF) report that revised the estimate on the number of attackers, 6,000 Gazans breached the border in 119 locations into Israel, including 3,800 from the elite Nukhba forces and 2,200 civilians and other militants. Additionally, the IDF report estimated 1,000 Gazans fired rockets from the Gaza Strip, bringing the total number of participants on Hamas's side to 7,000. In total, 1,195 people were killed by the attacks: at least 828 civilians (including 36 children and 71 foreign nationals) and at least 367 members of the security forces . 364 civilians were killed while they were attending the Nova music festival and many more wounded. At least 14 Israeli civilians were killed by the IDF's use of the Hannibal Directive . About 250 Israeli and non-Israeli civilians and soldiers were taken as hostages to the Gaza Strip . Dozens of cases of rape and sexual assault reportedly occurred , but Hamas officials denied the involvement of their fighters. Hamas said its attack was in response to the continued Israeli occupation , the blockade of the Gaza Strip , the expansion of illegal Israeli settlements , rising Israeli settler violence , and recent escalations. The day was labelled the bloodiest in Israel's history and \"the deadliest for Jews since the Holocaust \" by many figures and media outlets in the West , including then-US president Joe Biden . Some have alleged that the attack was an act of genocide or a genocidal massacre against Israelis. The governments of 44 countries denounced the attack and described it as terrorism , while some Arab and Muslim-majority countries blamed Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories as the root cause of the attack. ^ Cite error: The named reference UN Fact Sheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Van Vlierden, Guy (October 14, 2023). \"HLN ONDERZOEK. Van jihadisten tot communisten: zeker 10 groeperingen deden mee met actie Palestijnse terroristen\" [HLN RESEARCH. From jihadists to communists: at least 10 groups participated in Palestinian terrorist action]. Het Laatste Nieuws (in Dutch). {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Cite error: The named reference pflp was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference DFLP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Fabian-2025-05-22 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Halabi, Einav (October 25, 2023). \"Most wanted: Key Hamas figures in Israel's crosshairs\" . Ynetnews . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ \"Commander Itzik Buzukashvili, 44: Battled terrorists with daughter\" . Times of Israel . October 12, 2023 . Retrieved October 12, 2023 . ^ \"The Chief of the Rahat police, Sen. Giyar Davidov, was killed today\" . Cedar News (in Arabic). October 8, 2023. Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ \"Chief Supt. Avi Amar, 54: Hero officer's final hug caught on film\" . Times of Israel . December 25, 2023 . Retrieved December 25, 2023 . ^ \"Palestinian Al Quds Brigades claim responsibility for attack at Lebanon-Israel border\" . Al-Arabiya . September 10, 2023. Archived from the original on October 9, 2023 . Retrieved October 14, 2023 . ^ Cuzdan, Vecih (October 7, 2023). \"Hamide Rencüs: İsrail ilk defa Gazze sınırındaki kontrolü kaybetmiş durumda\" [Hamide Rencüs: Israel has lost control over the Gaza border for the first time]. bianet.org (in Turkish). Archived from the original on October 9, 2023 . Retrieved October 8, 2023 . ^ \"Report: New IDF assessment shows some 6,000 Gazans invaded Israel on Oct. 7\" . The Times of Israel . August 31, 2024. Archived from the original on September 20, 2024 . Retrieved August 31, 2024 . ^ \"Noa Argamani was abducted not by Hamas but by civilian mob, NBC report suggests\" . The Times of Israel . December 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 10, 2025 . ^ Frantzman, Seth J. (October 17, 2023). \"Overwhelmed: The IDF's first hours fighting the terror waves on Oct 7\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on December 24, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2023 . Golani soldiers from the 51st and 13th battalions fought along 30km of the border at numerous points and took heavy casualties between October 7 and 9. ^ Cite error: The named reference kerem was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"New footage shows harbor security unit foiling Hamas naval infiltration on October 7\" . The Times of Israel . October 14, 2023. Archived from the original on October 14, 2023 . Retrieved October 20, 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference shinbet was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Duro, Israel (October 11, 2023). \"Heroes of Israel: Armed members of several kibbutzim managed to fight off terrorists\" . VOZ . Archived from the original on October 13, 2023 . Retrieved October 11, 2023 . ^ Ghert-Zand, Enee (October 18, 2023). \"Young dad of 6 absorbed blast to protect family in attack on Kerem Shalom\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on October 18, 2023 . Retrieved October 18, 2023 . ^ Fabian, Emanuel (February 27, 2025). \"767 troops faced 5,000 terrorists; Gaza Division was overrun for hours – IDF Oct. 7 probe\" . The Times of Israel . Retrieved February 27, 2025 . ^ Davori, Nir (February 26, 2024). הבקשה של פיקוד הדרום בלילה שלפני הטבח – והסירוב [The Southern Command's request the night before the massacre – and the refusal]. Hevrat HaHadashot (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on February 27, 2024 . Retrieved February 27, 2024 . ^ \"October 7 Crimes Against Humanity, War Crimes by Hamas-led Groups\" . Human Rights Watch . July 17, 2024. Archived from the original on September 24, 2024 . Retrieved September 24, 2024 . ^ Fabian, Emanuel; Spiro, Amy (August 6, 2024). \"Final unaccounted for October 7 victim died in onslaught, IDF confirms\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved September 24, 2024 . ^ \"Israel social security data reveals true picture of Oct 7 deaths\" . France 24 . December 15, 2023. Archived from the original on December 17, 2023 . Retrieved December 18, 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference at1189 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference cas2,2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Isrcaptured was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Monitoring the status of hostages still in Gaza after Hamas's attack\" . The Washington Post . February 1, 2025. Archived from the original on September 2, 2025 . Retrieved February 7, 2025 . ^ \"Probe reveals 6,000 Gazans infiltrated Israel during October 7 massacre – report\" . The Jerusalem Post . August 31, 2024. Archived from the original on August 31, 2024 . Retrieved September 1, 2024 . ^ \"Report: New IDF assessment shows some 6,000 Gazans invaded Israel on Oct. 7\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on September 20, 2024 . Retrieved September 1, 2024 . ^ \"Hamas says it has enough Israeli captives to free all Palestinian prisoners\" . Al Jazeera . October 7, 2023. Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 12, 2023 . ^ Kubovich, Yaniv (October 17, 2023). \"The First Hours of the Israel-Hamas War: What Actually Took Place?\" . Haaretz . Retrieved October 17, 2023 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ \"Around 1,000 dead in Israel-Hamas war, as Lebanon's Hezbollah also launches strikes\" . South China Morning Post . October 8, 2023. Archived from the original on October 8, 2023 . Retrieved October 9, 2023 . ^ \"Doubling previous numbers, report says 6,000 Gazans – including 3,800 trained Hamas terrorists – broke into Israel on Oct. 7\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on September 1, 2024 . Retrieved August 31, 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference YnetFF was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Cook121215 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference YA240112 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ynet240111 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Israel revises death toll from Oct. 7 Hamas assault, dropping it from 1,400 to 1,200\" . The Times of Israel . November 11, 2023. Archived from the original on November 11, 2023. ^ \"Israel revises Hamas attack death toll to 'around 1,200' \" . Reuters . November 10, 2023. Archived from the original on November 11, 2023. ^ Nicola Smith (June 13, 2024). \"Israel killed own citizens on October 7 in 'Hannibal Directive', UN claims\" . The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved June 15, 2024 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Yaniv, Kubovich (July 7, 2024). \"IDF Ordered Hannibal Directive on October 7 to Prevent Hamas Taking Soldiers Captive\" . Haaretz . Retrieved September 14, 2025 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Yonah, Jeremy (October 19, 2023). \"IDF working on rescue ops for over 200 Israeli hostages in Gaza\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved October 20, 2023 . ^ McKernan, Bethan (October 7, 2023). \"Hamas launches surprise attack on Israel as Palestinian gunmen reported in south\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Hearst, Katherine. \"Explained: The Palestinian children detained by Israel\" . Middle East Eye . Retrieved November 25, 2024 . ^ Gettleman, Sella & Schwartz 2023 : \"Meni Binyamin, the head of the International Crime Investigations Unit of the Israeli police, has said that \"dozens\" of women and some men were raped by Hamas militants on Oct. 7.\" ^ \"Fears of a ground invasion of Gaza grow as Israel vows 'mighty vengeance' \" . Al Jazeera . October 7, 2023. Archived from the original on October 8, 2023 . Retrieved October 8, 2023 . ^ McKernan, Bethan; Michaelson, Ruth; Graham-Harrison, Emma; Kierszenbaum, Quique; Balousha, Hazem; Taha, Sufian; Sherwood, Harriet; Beaumont, Peter (October 14, 2023). \"Seven days of terror that shook the world and changed the Middle East\" . The Observer . Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 1, 2023 . ^ Pacchiani, Luca (October 7, 2023). \"Hamas deputy chief anticipates hostages will be swapped for Palestinian prisoners\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on October 25, 2023 . Retrieved October 25, 2023 . ^ \"Hamas's attack was the bloodiest in Israel's history\" . The Economist . October 12, 2023. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on October 14, 2023 . Retrieved October 15, 2023 . The most searing historical comparison predates Israel's founding. Not all of Hamas's victims were Israeli, and not all of the Israeli dead were Jewish. But under reasonable assumptions about the ethnic make-up of those killed in this and previous attacks, the last time before October 7th that this many Jews were murdered on a single day was during the Holocaust. ^ \"Hamas attack 'deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust', says Biden, as Israeli jets pound Gaza\" . The Guardian . October 12, 2023. ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on October 12, 2023 . Retrieved October 12, 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :9 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :10 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :11 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Waldo, Cleary; Epstein, Gabriel; Hilbush, Sydney (October 11, 2023). \"International Reactions to the Hamas Attack on Israel\" . The Washington Institute . PolicyWatch 3793. Archived from the original on October 16, 2023 . Retrieved October 13, 2023 . ^ Michaelson, Ruth (October 7, 2023). \"Condemnation and calls for restraint after Hamas attack on Israel\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . International leaders condemned an unprecedented incursion by Palestinian militants into southern Israel, while governments across the Middle East called for restraint after an attack that shook the Israeli security establishment. [...] The US defence secretary, Lloyd Austin , said his organisation would send support to Israel. 'Over the coming days the Department of Defense will work to ensure that Israel has what it needs to defend itself and protect civilians from indiscriminate violence and terrorism,' he said. ^ \"World reaction to surprise attack by Palestinian Hamas on Israel\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 8, 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "2023 armed incursions and massacres in Israel This article is about the 2023 attacks on Israel from Gaza. For the war initiated by the attack, see Gaza war . For the October 7, 2001, United States attack on Afghanistan, see United States invasion of Afghanistan . Belligerents Hamas Palestinian allies : Palestinian Islamic Jihad Popular Resistance Committees Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Palestinian Mujahideen Movement Palestinian Freedom Movement Israel Commanders and leaders Yahya Sinwar Mohammed Deif Marwan Issa Wissam Farhat Rafa Salama Benjamin Netanyahu Yoav Gallant Herzi Halevi Yaron Finkelman Oded Basyuk Avi Rosenfeld Barak Hiram Roi Levy † Asaf Hamami † Yonatan Steinberg † Kobi Shabtai Itzik Buzukashvili [ he ] † Jayar Davidov † Avi Amar † Ronen Bar Units involved Palestinian Joint Operations Room Al-Qassam Brigades Nukhba forces Al-Quds Brigades Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades Abu Ali Mustafa Brigades National Resistance Brigades Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Mujahideen Brigades Al-Ansar Brigades Palestinian civilian mobs Israel Defense Forces Israeli Ground Forces Golani Brigade 13th Battalion 51st Battalion Nahal Brigade Gaza Division Refaim Unit Caracal Battalion Home Front Command Israeli Navy Shayetet 13 916th Patrol Squadron (Ashdod) Snapir unit Air Defense Command Israel Police Israel Border Police Yamam Yoav Unit Shin Bet Armed Israeli civilians Strength Per Israel: ~6,000 entered Israel (3,800 Nukhba fighters, 2,200 civilians and other fighters) 1,000 rocket launch crews inside Gaza Israel Defense Forces 767 soldiers 12 tanks Casualties and losses Per Israel: 1,609 fighters killed 149 fighters captured 1,195 civilians and security forces killed 828+ civilians, 367+ security forces 3,400 civilians and security forces wounded 251 security forces and civilians captured The October 7 attacks were a series of coordinated armed incursions from the blockaded Gaza Strip into the Gaza envelope of southern Israel , carried out by Hamas and several other Palestinian militant groups in 2023, during the Jewish holiday of Simchat Torah . The attacks, which began the ongoing Gaza war , were the first large-scale invasion of Israeli territory since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . In response, Israel launched a large-scale military operation in Gaza . The attacks began with a barrage of at least 4,300 rockets launched into Israel and vehicle-transported and powered paraglider incursions into Israel. Hamas militants breached the Gaza–Israel barrier , attacking military bases and massacring civilians in 21 communities, including Be'eri , Kfar Aza , Nir Oz , Netiv Haasara , and Alumim . According to an Israel Defense Forces (IDF) report that revised the estimate on the number of attackers, 6,000 Gazans breached the border in 119 locations into Israel, including 3,800 from the elite Nukhba forces and 2,200 civilians and other militants. Additionally, the IDF report estimated 1,000 Gazans fired rockets from the Gaza Strip, bringing the total number of participants on Hamas's side to 7,000. In total, 1,195 people were killed by the attacks: at least 828 civilians (including 36 children and 71 foreign nationals) and at least 367 members of the security forces . 364 civilians were killed while they were attending the Nova music festival and many more wounded. At least 14 Israeli civilians were killed by the IDF's use of the Hannibal Directive . About 250 Israeli and non-Israeli civilians and soldiers were taken as hostages to the Gaza Strip . Dozens of cases of rape and sexual assault reportedly occurred , but Hamas officials denied the involvement of their fighters. Hamas said its attack was in response to the continued Israeli occupation , the blockade of the Gaza Strip , the expansion of illegal Israeli settlements , rising Israeli settler violence , and recent escalations. The day was labelled the bloodiest in Israel's history and \"the deadliest for Jews since the Holocaust \" by many figures and media outlets in the West , including then-US president Joe Biden . Some have alleged that the attack was an act of genocide or a genocidal massacre against Israelis. The governments of 44 countries denounced the attack and described it as terrorism , while some Arab and Muslim-majority countries blamed Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories as the root cause of the attack. ^ Cite error: The named reference UN Fact Sheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Van Vlierden, Guy (October 14, 2023). \"HLN ONDERZOEK. Van jihadisten tot communisten: zeker 10 groeperingen deden mee met actie Palestijnse terroristen\" [HLN RESEARCH. From jihadists to communists: at least 10 groups participated in Palestinian terrorist action]. Het Laatste Nieuws (in Dutch). {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Cite error: The named reference pflp was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference DFLP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Fabian-2025-05-22 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Iran Didn't Win the War\" . Foreign Affairs . June 25, 2026 . Retrieved July 26, 2026 . ^ Halabi, Einav (October 25, 2023). \"Most wanted: Key Hamas figures in Israel's crosshairs\" . Ynetnews . Retrieved December 11, 2023 . ^ \"Commander Itzik Buzukashvili, 44: Battled terrorists with daughter\" . Times of Israel . October 12, 2023 . Retrieved October 12, 2023 . ^ \"The Chief of the Rahat police, Sen. Giyar Davidov, was killed today\" . Cedar News (in Arabic). October 8, 2023. Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ \"Chief Supt. Avi Amar, 54: Hero officer's final hug caught on film\" . Times of Israel . December 25, 2023 . Retrieved December 25, 2023 . ^ \"Palestinian Al Quds Brigades claim responsibility for attack at Lebanon-Israel border\" . Al-Arabiya . September 10, 2023. Archived from the original on October 9, 2023 . Retrieved October 14, 2023 . ^ Cuzdan, Vecih (October 7, 2023). \"Hamide Rencüs: İsrail ilk defa Gazze sınırındaki kontrolü kaybetmiş durumda\" [Hamide Rencüs: Israel has lost control over the Gaza border for the first time]. bianet.org (in Turkish). Archived from the original on October 9, 2023 . Retrieved October 8, 2023 . ^ \"Report: New IDF assessment shows some 6,000 Gazans invaded Israel on Oct. 7\" . The Times of Israel . August 31, 2024. Archived from the original on September 20, 2024 . Retrieved August 31, 2024 . ^ \"Noa Argamani was abducted not by Hamas but by civilian mob, NBC report suggests\" . The Times of Israel . December 19, 2023 . Retrieved July 10, 2025 . ^ Frantzman, Seth J. (October 17, 2023). \"Overwhelmed: The IDF's first hours fighting the terror waves on Oct 7\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on December 24, 2023 . Retrieved December 26, 2023 . Golani soldiers from the 51st and 13th battalions fought along 30km of the border at numerous points and took heavy casualties between October 7 and 9. ^ Cite error: The named reference kerem was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"New footage shows harbor security unit foiling Hamas naval infiltration on October 7\" . The Times of Israel . October 14, 2023. Archived from the original on October 14, 2023 . Retrieved October 20, 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference shinbet was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Duro, Israel (October 11, 2023). \"Heroes of Israel: Armed members of several kibbutzim managed to fight off terrorists\" . VOZ . Archived from the original on October 13, 2023 . Retrieved October 11, 2023 . ^ Ghert-Zand, Enee (October 18, 2023). \"Young dad of 6 absorbed blast to protect family in attack on Kerem Shalom\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on October 18, 2023 . Retrieved October 18, 2023 . ^ Fabian, Emanuel (February 27, 2025). \"767 troops faced 5,000 terrorists; Gaza Division was overrun for hours – IDF Oct. 7 probe\" . The Times of Israel . Retrieved February 27, 2025 . ^ Davori, Nir (February 26, 2024). הבקשה של פיקוד הדרום בלילה שלפני הטבח – והסירוב [The Southern Command's request the night before the massacre – and the refusal]. Hevrat HaHadashot (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on February 27, 2024 . Retrieved February 27, 2024 . ^ \"October 7 Crimes Against Humanity, War Crimes by Hamas-led Groups\" . Human Rights Watch . July 17, 2024. Archived from the original on September 24, 2024 . Retrieved September 24, 2024 . ^ Fabian, Emanuel; Spiro, Amy (August 6, 2024). \"Final unaccounted for October 7 victim died in onslaught, IDF confirms\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on September 21, 2024 . Retrieved September 24, 2024 . ^ \"Israel social security data reveals true picture of Oct 7 deaths\" . France 24 . December 15, 2023. Archived from the original on December 17, 2023 . Retrieved December 18, 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference at1189 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference cas2,2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Isrcaptured was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Monitoring the status of hostages still in Gaza after Hamas's attack\" . The Washington Post . February 1, 2025. Archived from the original on September 2, 2025 . Retrieved February 7, 2025 . ^ \"Probe reveals 6,000 Gazans infiltrated Israel during October 7 massacre – report\" . The Jerusalem Post . August 31, 2024. Archived from the original on August 31, 2024 . Retrieved September 1, 2024 . ^ \"Report: New IDF assessment shows some 6,000 Gazans invaded Israel on Oct. 7\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on September 20, 2024 . Retrieved September 1, 2024 . ^ \"Hamas says it has enough Israeli captives to free all Palestinian prisoners\" . Al Jazeera . October 7, 2023. Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 12, 2023 . ^ Kubovich, Yaniv (October 17, 2023). \"The First Hours of the Israel-Hamas War: What Actually Took Place?\" . Haaretz . Retrieved October 17, 2023 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ \"Around 1,000 dead in Israel-Hamas war, as Lebanon's Hezbollah also launches strikes\" . South China Morning Post . October 8, 2023. Archived from the original on October 8, 2023 . Retrieved October 9, 2023 . ^ \"Doubling previous numbers, report says 6,000 Gazans – including 3,800 trained Hamas terrorists – broke into Israel on Oct. 7\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on September 1, 2024 . Retrieved August 31, 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference YnetFF was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Cook121215 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference YA240112 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ynet240111 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Israel revises death toll from Oct. 7 Hamas assault, dropping it from 1,400 to 1,200\" . The Times of Israel . November 11, 2023. Archived from the original on November 11, 2023. ^ \"Israel revises Hamas attack death toll to 'around 1,200' \" . Reuters . November 10, 2023. Archived from the original on November 11, 2023. ^ Nicola Smith (June 13, 2024). \"Israel killed own citizens on October 7 in 'Hannibal Directive', UN claims\" . The Daily Telegraph . Retrieved June 15, 2024 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Yaniv, Kubovich (July 7, 2024). \"IDF Ordered Hannibal Directive on October 7 to Prevent Hamas Taking Soldiers Captive\" . Haaretz . Retrieved September 14, 2025 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Yonah, Jeremy (October 19, 2023). \"IDF working on rescue ops for over 200 Israeli hostages in Gaza\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved October 20, 2023 . ^ McKernan, Bethan (October 7, 2023). \"Hamas launches surprise attack on Israel as Palestinian gunmen reported in south\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . ^ Hearst, Katherine. \"Explained: The Palestinian children detained by Israel\" . Middle East Eye . Retrieved November 25, 2024 . ^ Gettleman, Sella & Schwartz 2023 : \"Meni Binyamin, the head of the International Crime Investigations Unit of the Israeli police, has said that \"dozens\" of women and some men were raped by Hamas militants on Oct. 7.\" ^ \"Fears of a ground invasion of Gaza grow as Israel vows 'mighty vengeance' \" . Al Jazeera . October 7, 2023. Archived from the original on October 8, 2023 . Retrieved October 8, 2023 . ^ McKernan, Bethan; Michaelson, Ruth; Graham-Harrison, Emma; Kierszenbaum, Quique; Balousha, Hazem; Taha, Sufian; Sherwood, Harriet; Beaumont, Peter (October 14, 2023). \"Seven days of terror that shook the world and changed the Middle East\" . The Observer . Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on October 20, 2023 . Retrieved November 1, 2023 . ^ Pacchiani, Luca (October 7, 2023). \"Hamas deputy chief anticipates hostages will be swapped for Palestinian prisoners\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on October 25, 2023 . Retrieved October 25, 2023 . ^ \"Hamas's attack was the bloodiest in Israel's history\" . The Economist . October 12, 2023. ISSN 0013-0613 . Archived from the original on October 14, 2023 . Retrieved October 15, 2023 . The most searing historical comparison predates Israel's founding. Not all of Hamas's victims were Israeli, and not all of the Israeli dead were Jewish. But under reasonable assumptions about the ethnic make-up of those killed in this and previous attacks, the last time before October 7th that this many Jews were murdered on a single day was during the Holocaust. ^ \"Hamas attack 'deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust', says Biden, as Israeli jets pound Gaza\" . The Guardian . October 12, 2023. ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on October 12, 2023 . Retrieved October 12, 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :9 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :10 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :11 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Waldo, Cleary; Epstein, Gabriel; Hilbush, Sydney (October 11, 2023). \"International Reactions to the Hamas Attack on Israel\" . The Washington Institute . PolicyWatch 3793. Archived from the original on October 16, 2023 . Retrieved October 13, 2023 . ^ Michaelson, Ruth (October 7, 2023). \"Condemnation and calls for restraint after Hamas attack on Israel\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 7, 2023 . International leaders condemned an unprecedented incursion by Palestinian militants into southern Israel, while governments across the Middle East called for restraint after an attack that shook the Israeli security establishment. [...] The US defence secretary, Lloyd Austin , said his organisation would send support to Israel. 'Over the coming days the Department of Defense will work to ensure that Israel has what it needs to defend itself and protect civilians from indiscriminate violence and terrorism,' he said. ^ \"World reaction to surprise attack by Palestinian Hamas on Israel\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on October 7, 2023 . Retrieved October 8, 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Al-Shifa Hospital",
   "pageid": 21218880,
   "revid_before": 1361778095,
   "revid_after": 1366589252,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-28T22:55:29Z",
   "lead_changed": false,
   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Shifa_Hospital&oldid=1361778095",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Shifa_Hospital&oldid=1366589252",
   "lead_before": "Hospital in Gaza Strip, Palestine For other hospitals, see Shifa Hospital (disambiguation) . Hospital in Gaza Governorate, Palestine Al-Shifa Hospital ( Arabic : مستشفى الشفاء , romanized : Mustašfā aš-Šifāʾ [musˈtaʃ.fa aʃːiˈfaːʔ] ) is the largest medical complex and central hospital in the Gaza Strip , Palestine, located in the neighborhood of northern Rimal in Gaza City . The hospital was first established by the government of Mandatory Palestine in 1946, and expanded during the Egyptian and later Israeli occupations . During the Gaza war , Israel, supported by the United States, said Hamas was using the hospital as a command center and on 15 November 2023, its forces raided the hospital , where thousands of Palestinians were taking shelter. The Israeli raid was widely criticized and Israel was accused by several news outlets of waging a propaganda war. Medical staff at al-Shifa have accused Israel of directly causing the deaths of civilians being treated at al-Shifa, including prematurely born babies. Following Israel's release of video evidence of Hamas tunnels under the hospital on 22 November, multiple news agencies concluded that the evidence did not demonstrate the use by Hamas of a command center. Amnesty International said on 23 November 2023 that \"Amnesty International has so far not seen any credible evidence to support Israel's claim that al-Shifa is housing a military command centre\" and that \"the Israeli military has so far failed to provide credible evidence\" for the allegation. Izzat al-Risheq , a Hamas official, denied that the group used the hospital as a shield for its underground military structures , saying there was no truth to the claims. A later report in February 2024 by the New York Times , confirmed the earlier reports but also cited classified Israeli intelligence material suggesting that Hamas did use the hospital as cover. A second Israeli raid on the hospital, during which there were extensive gunfights in and around the hospital complex, ended on 1 April 2024 after two weeks. The hospital was completely destroyed with hundreds of casualties around the hospital. One of its medical units reopened on 1 September 2024. ^ Al-Shifa Hospital and Israel's Gaza Siege Archived 21 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine Defence for Children International Palestine Section. 16 July 2006. ^ \"Thousands trapped as Israeli forces raid Gaza's al-Shifa Hospital\" . Al Jazeera English . Retrieved 15 November 2023 . ^ Crawford, Shannon; Nagle, Molly. \"US 'still convinced' Hamas used Al-Shifa Hospital as command center as Israeli raid continues\" . ABC News . Retrieved 23 November 2023 . ^ \"IDF evidence so far falls well short of al-Shifa hospital being Hamas HQ\" . The Guardian . 17 November 2023. ^ Iordache, Ruxandra; Meredith, Sam (20 November 2023). \"31 babies evacuated from Gaza's Al-Shifa; Biden says he believes a hostage deal will come soon\" . CNBC . ^ \" 'Hospitals are not battlegrounds': World reacts to Israel's al-Shifa raid\" . Al Jazeera . 15 November 2023. ^ Cite error: The named reference nation_prop was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference The New Arab 2023 b495 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Scahill, Jeremy (21 November 2023). \"Al-Shifa Hospital, Hamas's Tunnels, and Israeli Propaganda\" . The Intercept . Retrieved 24 November 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference unveil was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference WSJ was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sabbagh, Dan (23 November 2023). \"Israel arrests Gaza hospital director and bombs 300 targets amid truce delay\" . The Guardian . Israel has repeatedly claimed that Hamas ran a command and control centre from tunnels running near and under the hospital, although so far the evidence presented has fallen short of that. ^ \"Secrets of the tunnels: What lies beneath al Shifa hospital?\" . Sky News . The Israeli army is continuing to search the site for evidence of Hamas's presence, including the alleged command and control centre. ^ Vasilyeva, Nataliya; Barnes, Joe (23 November 2023). \"Inside the tunnels beneath Gaza's Al-Shifa hospital\" . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 25 November 2023 . While the footage does prove the existence of tunnels underneath the complex, it remains unclear whether they formed part of a Hamas command centre, as Israel claims. ^ \"Amnesty International UK Briefing: CRISIS IN ISRAEL AND THE OCCUPIED PALESTINIAN TERRITORIES 23 November 2023\" (PDF) . Amnesty International UK . 23 November 2023 . Retrieved 7 December 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hamas rejects Israeli claim over installations under al-Shifa hospital\" . Al Jazeera . ^ Rosenberg, Matthew; Bergman, Ronen; Toler, Aric; Rosales, Helmuth (13 February 2024). \"A Tunnel Offers Clues to How Hamas Uses Gaza's Hospitals\" . The New York Times . ^ \"Israeli troops end Al-Shifa hospital raid, leaving behind bodies and trail of destruction\" . CNN . 1 April 2024 . Retrieved 1 April 2024 . ^ Boxerman, Aaron; Abuheweila, Iyad (April 2024). \"Israeli troops pull out of a major Gaza hospital after a two-week battle\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 7 April 2024 . ^ Al Jazeera English (1 September 2024). Gaza's al-Shifa Hospital reopens after being left in ruins by Israeli attacks . Retrieved 6 September 2024 – via YouTube.",
   "lead_after": "Hospital in Gaza Strip, Palestine For other hospitals, see Shifa Hospital (disambiguation) . Hospital in Gaza Governorate, Palestine Al-Shifa Hospital ( Arabic : مستشفى الشفاء , romanized : Mustašfā aš-Šifāʾ [musˈtaʃ.fa aʃːiˈfaːʔ] ) is the largest medical complex and central hospital in the Gaza Strip , Palestine, located in the neighborhood of northern Rimal in Gaza City . The hospital was first established by the government of Mandatory Palestine in 1946, and expanded during the Egyptian and later Israeli occupations . During the Gaza war , Israel, supported by the United States, said Hamas was using the hospital as a command center and on 15 November 2023, its forces raided the hospital , where thousands of Palestinians were taking shelter. The Israeli raid was widely criticized and Israel was accused by several news outlets of waging a propaganda war. Medical staff at al-Shifa have accused Israel of directly causing the deaths of civilians being treated at al-Shifa, including prematurely born babies. Following Israel's release of video evidence of Hamas tunnels under the hospital on 22 November, multiple news agencies concluded that the evidence did not demonstrate the use by Hamas of a command center. Amnesty International said on 23 November 2023 that \"Amnesty International has so far not seen any credible evidence to support Israel's claim that al-Shifa is housing a military command centre\" and that \"the Israeli military has so far failed to provide credible evidence\" for the allegation. Izzat al-Risheq , a Hamas official, denied that the group used the hospital as a shield for its underground military structures , saying there was no truth to the claims. A later report in February 2024 by the New York Times , confirmed the earlier reports but also cited classified Israeli intelligence material suggesting that Hamas did use the hospital as cover. A second Israeli raid on the hospital, during which there were extensive gunfights in and around the hospital complex, ended on 1 April 2024 after two weeks. The hospital was completely destroyed with hundreds of casualties around the hospital. One of its medical units reopened on 1 September 2024. ^ Al-Shifa Hospital and Israel's Gaza Siege Archived 21 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine Defence for Children International Palestine Section. 16 July 2006. ^ \"Thousands trapped as Israeli forces raid Gaza's al-Shifa Hospital\" . Al Jazeera English . Retrieved 15 November 2023 . ^ Crawford, Shannon; Nagle, Molly. \"US 'still convinced' Hamas used Al-Shifa Hospital as command center as Israeli raid continues\" . ABC News . Retrieved 23 November 2023 . ^ \"IDF evidence so far falls well short of al-Shifa hospital being Hamas HQ\" . The Guardian . 17 November 2023. ^ Iordache, Ruxandra; Meredith, Sam (20 November 2023). \"31 babies evacuated from Gaza's Al-Shifa; Biden says he believes a hostage deal will come soon\" . CNBC . ^ \" 'Hospitals are not battlegrounds': World reacts to Israel's al-Shifa raid\" . Al Jazeera . 15 November 2023. ^ Cite error: The named reference nation_prop was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference The New Arab 2023 b495 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Scahill, Jeremy (21 November 2023). \"Al-Shifa Hospital, Hamas's Tunnels, and Israeli Propaganda\" . The Intercept . Retrieved 24 November 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference unveil was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference WSJ was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sabbagh, Dan (23 November 2023). \"Israel arrests Gaza hospital director and bombs 300 targets amid truce delay\" . The Guardian . Israel has repeatedly claimed that Hamas ran a command and control centre from tunnels running near and under the hospital, although so far the evidence presented has fallen short of that. ^ \"Secrets of the tunnels: What lies beneath al Shifa hospital?\" . Sky News . The Israeli army is continuing to search the site for evidence of Hamas's presence, including the alleged command and control centre. ^ Vasilyeva, Nataliya; Barnes, Joe (23 November 2023). \"Inside the tunnels beneath Gaza's Al-Shifa hospital\" . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Retrieved 25 November 2023 . While the footage does prove the existence of tunnels underneath the complex, it remains unclear whether they formed part of a Hamas command centre, as Israel claims. ^ \"Amnesty International UK Briefing: CRISIS IN ISRAEL AND THE OCCUPIED PALESTINIAN TERRITORIES 23 November 2023\" (PDF) . Amnesty International UK . 23 November 2023 . Retrieved 7 December 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hamas rejects Israeli claim over installations under al-Shifa hospital\" . Al Jazeera . ^ Rosenberg, Matthew; Bergman, Ronen; Toler, Aric; Rosales, Helmuth (13 February 2024). \"A Tunnel Offers Clues to How Hamas Uses Gaza's Hospitals\" . The New York Times . ^ \"Israeli troops end Al-Shifa hospital raid, leaving behind bodies and trail of destruction\" . CNN . 1 April 2024 . Retrieved 1 April 2024 . ^ Boxerman, Aaron; Abuheweila, Iyad (April 2024). \"Israeli troops pull out of a major Gaza hospital after a two-week battle\" . The New York Times . Retrieved 7 April 2024 . ^ Al Jazeera English (1 September 2024). Gaza's al-Shifa Hospital reopens after being left in ruins by Israeli attacks . Retrieved 6 September 2024 – via YouTube."
  },
  {
   "title": "Plan Dalet",
   "pageid": 398036,
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   "lead_before": "1948 military plan in Mandatory Palestine \"Plan D\" redirects here. For the band, see Plan D (band) . For the French WWII defense plan, see Dyle Plan . Plan Dalet ( Hebrew : תוכנית ד' , Tokhnit dalet \" Plan D \") was a Zionist military plan executed during the 1948 Palestine war for the conquest of territory in Mandatory Palestine in preparation for the establishment of a Jewish state. The plan was the blueprint for Israel's military operations starting in March 1948 until the end of the war in early 1949, and so played a central role in the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight known as the Nakba . The plan was requested by the Jewish Agency leader and later first prime minister of Israel David Ben-Gurion , and developed by the Haganah and finalized on March 10, 1948. Historians describe Plan Dalet as the beginning of a new phase in the 1948 Palestine war in which Zionist forces shifted to an offensive strategy. The plan was a set of guidelines to take control of Mandatory Palestine, declare a Jewish state, and defend its borders and people, including the Jewish population outside of the borders, \"before, and in anticipation of\" the invasion by regular Arab armies. Plan Dalet specifically included gaining control of areas wherever Yishuv populations existed, including those outside the borders of the proposed Jewish state. The plan's tactics involved laying siege to Palestinian Arab villages, bombing neighbourhoods of cities, forced expulsion of their inhabitants, and setting fields and houses on fire and detonating TNT in the rubble to prevent any return. Zionist military units possessed detailed lists of neighborhoods and villages to be destroyed and their Arab inhabitants expelled. One of the first and most well known operations of Plan Dalet was the Deir Yassin massacre . This strategy is subject to controversy, with some historians characterizing it as defensive, while others assert that it was an integral part of a planned strategy for the expulsion, sometimes called an ethnic cleansing , of the area's native inhabitants. ^ Khalidi, Walid (1 October 1988). \"Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine\" . Journal of Palestine Studies . 18 (1): 4– 19. doi : 10.2307/2537591 . ISSN 0377-919X . JSTOR 2537591 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ David Tal (2004). War in Palestine, 1948: strategy and diplomacy . Psychology Press. pp. 165–. ISBN 9780203499542 . ^ Benny Morris. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, Benny Morris, Cambridge University Press, pg 155 . ^ MidEast Web, Plan Daleth (Plan D) ^ Yoav Gelber (January 2006). Palestine, 1948: war, escape and the emergence of the Palestinian refugee problem . Sussex Academic Press. pp. 98–. ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0 . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . ^ Ten years of research into the 1947-49 war - The expulsion of the Palestinians re-examined . By Dominique Vidal. Le Monde diplomatique . December 1997. ^ Robbie Sabel, [’ https://www.google.com/books/edition/International_Law_and_the_Arab_Israeli_C/f_xpEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbp International Law and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, ] Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-1-108-80798-2 2022 p.131:'The objective of this plan is to gain control of the areas of the Hebrew state and defend its borders. It also aims at gaining control of the areas of Jewish settlement and concentration which are located outside the borders (of the Jewish state in the Partition Plan) against regular, semi-regular, and small forces operating from bases outside or inside the state.’ .' ^ Pappé 2017 , p. 9. ^ Morris 2008 \"The essence of the plan was the clearing of hostile and potentially hostile forces out of the interior of the territory of the prospective Jewish State, establishing territorial continuity between the major concentrations of Jewish population and securing the future State's borders before, and in anticipation of, the invasion [by Arab states].\" Cite error: There are <ref group=qt> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=qt}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "1948 military plan in Mandatory Palestine \"Plan D\" redirects here. For the band, see Plan D (band) . For the French WWII defense plan, see Dyle Plan . Plan Dalet ( Hebrew : תוכנית ד' , Tokhnit dalet \" Plan D \"; 1 April – 14 May, 1948) was a Zionist military plan executed during the 1948 Palestine war for the conquest of territory in Mandatory Palestine in preparation for the establishment of a Jewish state. The plan was the blueprint for Israel's military operations, starting in March 1948 until the end of the war in early 1949, and so played a central role in the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight known as the Nakba . The plan was requested by the Jewish Agency leader and later first prime minister of Israel David Ben-Gurion , and developed by the Haganah and finalized on March 10, 1948. Historians describe Plan Dalet as the beginning of a new phase in the 1948 Palestine war in which Zionist forces shifted to an offensive strategy. The plan was a set of guidelines to take control of Mandatory Palestine, declare a Jewish state, and defend its borders and people, including the Jewish population outside of the borders, \"before, and in anticipation of\" the invasion by regular Arab armies. Plan Dalet specifically included gaining control of areas wherever Yishuv populations existed, including those outside the borders of the proposed Jewish state. The plan's tactics involved laying siege to Palestinian Arab villages, bombing neighbourhoods of cities, forced expulsion of their inhabitants, and setting fields and houses on fire and detonating TNT in the rubble to prevent any return. Zionist military units possessed detailed lists of neighborhoods and villages to be destroyed and their Arab inhabitants expelled. One of the first and most well known operations of Plan Dalet was the Deir Yassin massacre . This strategy is subject to controversy, with some historians characterizing it as defensive, while others assert that it was an integral part of a planned strategy for the expulsion, sometimes called an ethnic cleansing , of the area's native inhabitants. ^ Khalidi, Walid (1 October 1988). \"Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine\" . Journal of Palestine Studies . 18 (1): 4– 19. doi : 10.2307/2537591 . ISSN 0377-919X . JSTOR 2537591 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ David Tal (2004). War in Palestine, 1948: strategy and diplomacy . Psychology Press. pp. 165–. ISBN 9780203499542 . ^ Benny Morris. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, Benny Morris, Cambridge University Press, pg 155 . ^ MidEast Web, Plan Daleth (Plan D) ^ Yoav Gelber (January 2006). Palestine, 1948: war, escape and the emergence of the Palestinian refugee problem . Sussex Academic Press. pp. 98–. ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0 . Retrieved 14 April 2011 . ^ Ten years of research into the 1947-49 war - The expulsion of the Palestinians re-examined . By Dominique Vidal. Le Monde diplomatique . December 1997. ^ Robbie Sabel, [’ https://www.google.com/books/edition/International_Law_and_the_Arab_Israeli_C/f_xpEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbp International Law and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, ] Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-1-108-80798-2 2022 p.131:'The objective of this plan is to gain control of the areas of the Hebrew state and defend its borders. It also aims at gaining control of the areas of Jewish settlement and concentration which are located outside the borders (of the Jewish state in the Partition Plan) against regular, semi-regular, and small forces operating from bases outside or inside the state.’ .' ^ Pappé 2017 , p. 9. ^ Morris 2008 \"The essence of the plan was the clearing of hostile and potentially hostile forces out of the interior of the territory of the prospective Jewish State, establishing territorial continuity between the major concentrations of Jewish population and securing the future State's borders before, and in anticipation of, the invasion [by Arab states].\" Cite error: There are <ref group=qt> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=qt}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "War crimes in the Gaza war",
   "pageid": 75113830,
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   "lead_before": "Violations of the laws of war during the Gaza war This article is about war crimes in the conflict that began in 2023. For war crimes during the 2008–2009 conflict, see War crimes in the Gaza War (2008–2009) . Destruction caused by an Israeli airstrike on the El-Remal area in Gaza City on 9 October 2023 Israelis killed during the Nova music festival massacre Since the start of the Gaza war on 7 October 2023, the UN Human Rights Council has identified \"clear evidence\" of war crimes by both Hamas and the Israel Defense Forces . A UN Commission to the Israel–Palestine conflict stated that there is \"clear evidence that war crimes may have been committed in the latest explosion of violence in Israel and Gaza, and all those who have violated international law and targeted civilians must be held accountable\". On 27 October, a spokesperson for the OHCHR called for an independent court to review potential war crimes committed by both sides. On 29 December, South Africa filed a case against Israel at the International Court of Justice , alleging that Israel's conduct amounted to genocide . The International Criminal Court confirmed that its mandate to investigate alleged war crimes committed since June 2014 in the State of Palestine extends to the current conflict. On 20 May 2024, the Chief Prosecutor Karim Ahmad Khan announced his intention to seek arrest warrants against leaders of both sides of the conflict, including Hamas leaders Yahya Sinwar , Mohammed Deif and Ismail Haniyeh , and Israeli leaders Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Minister of Defense Yoav Gallant . In November, the ICC issued arrest warrants for Benjamin Netanyahu, Yoav Gallant and Mohammed Deif, alleging \"criminal responsibility\" for war crimes and crimes against humanity. ^ \"Is Israeli bombing of Gaza a violation of international laws?\" . Al Jazeera . 12 October 2023. Archived from the original on 22 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 October 2023 . ^ Farge, Emma (10 October 2023). \"UN rights chief condemns Israeli 'siege' of Gaza, militants' taking of hostages\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 22 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 October 2023 . ^ \"Commission of Inquiry collecting evidence of war crimes committed by all sides in Israel and Occupied Palestinian Territories since 7 October 2023\" (Press release). UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights . 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 22 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 October 2023 . ^ \"How international law applies to war, and why Hamas and Israel are both alleged to have broken it\" . Associated Press News . 17 October 2023. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023 . Retrieved 21 October 2023 . ^ \"War crimes by both sides in Israel-Gaza war\" . Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 27 October 2023 . ^ Roelf, Wendell; Sterling, Toby (29 December 2023). \"South Africa files genocide case against Israel at World Court\" . Reuters . Retrieved 29 December 2023 . ^ \"ICC prosecutor in Israel to meet survivors of Oct. 7 onslaught, families of victims\" . Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023 . Retrieved 30 November 2023 . ^ Lau, Chris (20 May 2024). \"Live updates: Israel-Hamas war in Gaza, Benny Gantz ultimatum, Netanyahu government in turmoil\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ \"Statement of ICC Prosecutor Karim A.A. Khan KC: Applications for arrest warrants in the situation in the State of Palestine\" . International Criminal Court . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ \"Israel Gaza war: ICC prosecutor seeks arrest warrants for Netanyahu and Hamas leaders\" . BBC News . 20 May 2024. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ Belam, Martin; Bayer, Lili; Livingstone, Helen (20 May 2024). \"ICC chief prosecutor seeks arrest warrants for Netanyahu and Hamas leader over alleged war crimes – live updates\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ \"ICC issues arrest warrants for Netanyahu, Gallant and Hamas commander\" . BBC . 21 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 November 2024 .",
   "lead_after": "Violations of the laws of war during the Gaza war This article is about war crimes in the conflict that began in 2023. For war crimes during the 2008–2009 conflict, see War crimes in the Gaza War (2008–2009) . Destruction caused by an Israeli airstrike on the El-Remal area in Gaza City on 9 October 2023 Israelis killed during the Nova music festival massacre Since the start of the Gaza war on 7 October 2023, the UN Human Rights Council has identified \"clear evidence\" of war crimes by both Hamas and the Israel Defense Forces . A UN Commission to the Israel–Palestine conflict stated that there is \"clear evidence that war crimes may have been committed in the latest explosion of violence in Israel and Gaza, and all those who have violated international law and targeted civilians must be held accountable\". On 27 October, a spokesperson for the OHCHR called for an independent court to review potential war crimes committed by both sides. On 29 December, South Africa filed a case against Israel at the International Court of Justice , alleging that Israel's conduct amounted to genocide . The International Criminal Court confirmed that its mandate to investigate alleged war crimes committed since June 2014 in the State of Palestine extends to the current conflict. On 20 May 2024, the Chief Prosecutor Karim Ahmad Khan announced his intention to seek arrest warrants against leaders of both sides of the conflict, including Hamas leaders Yahya Sinwar , Mohammed Deif and Ismail Haniyeh , and Israeli leaders Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Minister of Defense Yoav Gallant . In November, the ICC issued arrest warrants for Benjamin Netanyahu, Yoav Gallant and Mohammed Deif, alleging \"criminal responsibility\" for war crimes and crimes against humanity. ^ \"Is Israeli bombing of Gaza a violation of international laws?\" . Al Jazeera . 12 October 2023. Archived from the original on 22 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 October 2023 . ^ Farge, Emma (10 October 2023). \"UN rights chief condemns Israeli 'siege' of Gaza, militants' taking of hostages\" . Reuters . Archived from the original on 22 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 October 2023 . ^ \"Commission of Inquiry collecting evidence of war crimes committed by all sides in Israel and Occupied Palestinian Territories since 7 October 2023\" (Press release). UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights . 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 22 October 2023 . Retrieved 12 October 2023 . ^ \"How international law applies to war, and why Hamas and Israel are both alleged to have broken it\" . Associated Press News . 17 October 2023. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023 . Retrieved 21 October 2023 . ^ \"War crimes by both sides in Israel-Gaza war\" . Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 24 May 2024 . Retrieved 27 October 2023 . ^ Roelf, Wendell; Sterling, Toby (29 December 2023). \"South Africa files genocide case against Israel at World Court\" . Reuters . Retrieved 29 December 2023 . ^ \"ICC prosecutor in Israel to meet survivors of Oct. 7 onslaught, families of victims\" . Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023 . Retrieved 30 November 2023 . ^ Lau, Chris (20 May 2024). \"Live updates: Israel-Hamas war in Gaza, Benny Gantz ultimatum, Netanyahu government in turmoil\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ \"Statement of ICC Prosecutor Karim A.A. Khan KC: Applications for arrest warrants in the situation in the State of Palestine\" . International Criminal Court . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ \"Israel Gaza war: ICC prosecutor seeks arrest warrants for Netanyahu and Hamas leaders\" . BBC News . 20 May 2024. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ Belam, Martin; Bayer, Lili; Livingstone, Helen (20 May 2024). \"ICC chief prosecutor seeks arrest warrants for Netanyahu and Hamas leader over alleged war crimes – live updates\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 . ^ \"ICC issues arrest warrants for Netanyahu, Gallant and Hamas commander\" . BBC . 21 November 2024 . Retrieved 21 November 2024 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Ilan Pappé",
   "pageid": 3014514,
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   "lead_before": "Israeli-British historian (born 1954) Ilan Pappé ( Hebrew : אילן פפה [iˈlan paˈpe] ; born 7 November 1954) is an Israeli historian and political scientist , known for his work on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and as a leading figure among the New Historians . He is a professor at the University of Exeter 's College of Social Sciences and International Studies, where he directs the European Centre for Palestine Studies and co-directs the Exeter Centre for Ethno-Political Studies. Pappé's research focuses on the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight , which he characterizes as a deliberate ethnic cleansing campaign, citing Plan Dalet as a blueprint. His notable works include The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (2006), A History of Modern Palestine: One Land, Two Peoples (2003), and Ten Myths About Israel (2017). Born in Haifa , Israel, Pappé was a senior lecturer at the University of Haifa (1984–2007) and chaired the Emil Touma Institute for Palestinian and Israeli Studies (2000–2008). He left Israel in 2008 after facing criticism in the Knesset and receiving death threats. Pappé was active in Israeli politics as a member of the Hadash party and ran in the 1996 and 1999 elections. He advocates a single democratic state for Israelis and Palestinians and supports the BDS movement , including an academic boycott of Israel . ^ Cite error: The named reference R1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference UoEpubs was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference UoEbio was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Arnot was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference R2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference R3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ynet2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Wilson was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Israeli-British historian (born 1954) Ilan Pappé ( Hebrew : אילן פפה [iˈlan paˈpe] ; born 7 November 1954) is an Israeli historian and political scientist , known for his work on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and as a leading figure among the New Historians . He is a professor at the University of Exeter 's College of Social Sciences and International Studies, where he directs the European Centre for Palestine Studies and co-directs the Exeter Centre for Ethno-Political Studies. Pappé's research focuses on the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight , which he characterizes as a deliberate ethnic cleansing campaign, citing Plan Dalet as a blueprint. His notable works include The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (2006), A History of Modern Palestine: One Land, Two Peoples (2003), and Ten Myths About Israel (2017). Born in Haifa , Israel, Pappé was a senior lecturer at the University of Haifa (1984–2007) and chaired the Emil Touma Institute for Palestinian and Israeli Studies (2000–2008). He left Israel in 2008 after facing criticism in the Knesset and receiving death threats. Pappé was active in Israeli politics as a member of the Hadash party and ran in the 1996 and 1999 elections. He advocates a single democratic state for Israelis and Palestinians and supports the BDS movement , including an academic boycott of Israel . ^ Cite error: The named reference R1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference UoEpubs was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference UoEbio was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Arnot was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference R2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference R3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ynet2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Wilson was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Francesca Albanese",
   "pageid": 72566699,
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   "lead_before": "Italian legal scholar (born 1977) This article is about the United Nations special rapporteur. For the Australian prime minister, see Anthony Albanese . For other people with the same name, see Albanese . Francesca Paola Albanese ( Italian: [franˈtʃeska ˈpaːola albaˈneːze, -eːse] ; born 30 March 1977) is an Italian legal scholar and expert on human rights . She has served as the United Nations (UN) Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories since 1 May 2022; initially appointed for a three-year term, she was confirmed for another three years in April 2025. She is the first woman to hold the position. As part of her position as a UN special rapporteur, Albanese has been critical of Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories and recommended in her first report that UN member states develop a plan to end the occupation and apartheid . After the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip , Albanese called for an immediate ceasefire and warned that Palestinians in Gaza were at risk of ethnic cleansing . In March 2024, Albanese reported to the UN Human Rights Council that Israel's actions in Gaza amounted to genocide . Pro-Israel organizations, including the US Government, have accused Albanese of antisemitism and anti-Israel bias, and have called for her removal. Several human rights groups and numerous scholars of antisemitism have said the accusations are illegitimate attempts to discredit her . The UN published a report by Albanese in June 2025 stating that many corporate entities, including Microsoft , Alphabet Inc. , and Amazon , were enabling and profiting from the occupation of Palestinian territories and the Gaza genocide. In response, the United States under the Trump administration imposed sanctions on Albanese under Executive Order 14203 naming her a \" specially designated national \", forbidding all US persons and companies from doing business with her. Albanese holds a law degree with honours from the University of Pisa and a Master of Laws in human rights from SOAS University of London . She was an affiliate scholar at the Institute for the Study of International Migration at Georgetown University until late 2025, when the University stated it was ended due to the US sanctions. She is a senior advisor on Migration and Forced Displacement at the non-profit Arab Renaissance for Democracy and Development . ^ \"OHCHR | Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967\" . OHCHR . Archived from the original on 10 April 2023 . Retrieved 24 December 2022 .",
   "lead_after": "Italian legal scholar (born 1977) This article is about the United Nations special rapporteur. For the Australian prime minister, see Anthony Albanese . For other people with the same name, see Albanese . Francesca Paola Albanese ( Italian: [franˈtʃeska ˈpaːola albaˈneːze, -eːse] ; born 30 March 1977) is an Italian legal scholar and expert on human rights . She has served as the United Nations (UN) Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories since 1 May 2022; initially appointed for a three-year term, she was confirmed for another three years in April 2025. She is the first woman to hold the position. As part of her position as a UN special rapporteur, Albanese has been critical of Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories and recommended in her first report that UN member states develop a plan to end the occupation and apartheid . After the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip , Albanese called for an immediate ceasefire and warned that Palestinians in Gaza were at risk of ethnic cleansing . In March 2024, Albanese reported to the UN Human Rights Council that Israel's actions in Gaza amounted to genocide . Pro-Israel organizations, including the U.S. government, have accused Albanese of antisemitism and anti-Israel bias, and have called for her removal. Several human rights groups and numerous scholars of antisemitism have said the accusations are illegitimate attempts to discredit her . The UN published a report by Albanese in June 2025 stating that many corporate entities, including Microsoft , Alphabet Inc. , and Amazon , were enabling and profiting from the occupation of Palestinian territories and the Gaza genocide. In response, the United States under the Trump administration imposed sanctions on Albanese under Executive Order 14203 naming her a \" specially designated national \", forbidding all U.S. persons and companies from doing business with her. Albanese holds a law degree with honours from the University of Pisa and a Master of Laws in human rights from SOAS University of London . She was an affiliate scholar at the Institute for the Study of International Migration at Georgetown University until late 2025, when the University stated it was ended due to the U.S. sanctions. She is a senior advisor on Migration and Forced Displacement at the non-profit Arab Renaissance for Democracy and Development . ^ \"OHCHR | Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967\" . OHCHR . Archived from the original on 10 April 2023 . Retrieved 24 December 2022 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Richard A. Falk",
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   "lead_before": "American legal scholar (born 1930) Richard Anderson Falk (born November 13, 1930) is an American professor emeritus of international law at Princeton University , and Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor 's Chairman of the board of trustees. In 2004, he was listed as the author or coauthor of 20 books and the editor or coeditor of another 20 volumes. Falk has published extensively with multiple books written about international law and the United Nations. In 2008, the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) appointed Falk to a six-year term as a United Nations Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967. ^ Marcus, Jacob Rader; Daniels, Judith M., eds. (1994). Concise Dictionary of American Jewish Biography (PDF) . Brooklyn, NYC, NY: Carlson Publishing, Inc. p. 146. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 26, 2013 . Retrieved April 24, 2013 . ^ Griffiths, Martin (1999). Fifty Key Thinkers in International Relations . London: Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 9781134716838 . ^ Monitor, Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights. \"Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor - Board of Trustees\" . Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor . Retrieved May 31, 2021 . ^ Dean's Open Forum, Richard Falk , USC Center on Public Diplomacy , November 4, 2004. ^ \"Human Rights Council elects Advisory Committee Members and approves a number of Special Procedures mandate holders\" . United Nations . March 26, 2008. Archived from the original on January 1, 2009 . Retrieved January 1, 2009 .",
   "lead_after": "American legal scholar (born 1930) Richard Anderson Falk (born November 13, 1930) is an American professor emeritus of international law at Princeton University , and Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor 's Chairman of the board of trustees. In 2004, he was listed as the author or coauthor of 20 books and the editor or coeditor of another 20 volumes. Falk has published extensively with multiple books written about international law and the United Nations. In 2008, the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) appointed Falk to a six-year term as a United Nations Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967. ^ Marcus, Jacob Rader; Daniels, Judith M., eds. (1994). Concise Dictionary of American Jewish Biography (PDF) . Brooklyn, NYC, NY: Carlson Publishing, Inc. p. 146. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 26, 2013 . Retrieved April 24, 2013 . ^ Griffiths, Martin (1999). Fifty Key Thinkers in International Relations . London: Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 9781134716838 . ^ Monitor, Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights. \"Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor - Board of Trustees\" . Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor . Retrieved May 31, 2021 . ^ Dean's Open Forum, Richard Falk , USC Center on Public Diplomacy , November 4, 2004. ^ \"Human Rights Council elects Advisory Committee Members and approves a number of Special Procedures mandate holders\" . United Nations . March 26, 2008. Archived from the original on January 1, 2009 . Retrieved January 1, 2009 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "The Electronic Intifada",
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   "lead_before": "Online pro-Palestinian news publication The Electronic Intifada ( EI ) is an online publication covering the Israeli–Palestinian conflict from a Palestinian perspective. It is published by the nonprofit organization the Middle East Cultural and Charitable Society, which is based in Chicago. ^ \"Middle East Cultural And Charitable Society - Nonprofit Explorer\" . ProPublica . 9 May 2013 . Retrieved 11 September 2025 .",
   "lead_after": "Online pro-Palestinian news publication The Electronic Intifada ( EI ) is an online publication covering the Israeli–Palestinian conflict from a Palestinian perspective. It is published by the nonprofit organization the Middle East Cultural and Charitable Society, which is based in Chicago. ^ \"Middle East Cultural And Charitable Society - Nonprofit Explorer\" . ProPublica . 9 May 2013 . Retrieved 11 September 2025 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Judith Butler",
   "pageid": 148809,
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   "lead_before": "American feminist and queer philosopher (born 1956) Judith Butler (born February 24, 1956) is an American feminist , queer philosopher, and gender studies scholar whose work has influenced political philosophy , ethics, psychoanalysis , and the fields of feminist and queer theory , academic freedom , and literary theory . Butler has held academic appointments at Wesleyan University, George Washington University, and Johns Hopkins University where they received tenure in 1992 before joining the faculty in the Department of Rhetoric at the University of California, Berkeley in 1993. There they became the Maxine Elliot Professor in 1998, holding faculty appointments in the Departments of Rhetoric and Comparative Literature and the Program in Critical Theory which they cofounded in 2007. They founded the International Consortium of Critical Theory, funded by the Mellon Foundation , in 2015. They also hold the Hannah Arendt Chair at the European Graduate School (EGS). Butler is best known for the books Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990) and Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (1993), in which they challenge conventional, heteronormative notions of gender and develop their theory of gender performativity . This theory has had a major influence on feminist and queer scholarship. Butler has also spoken and written on war and non-violence , ethics, public mourning, democratic theory and other contemporary political questions, including the Palestinian struggles and the limits of Zionism. They have also spoken internationally in support of LGBTQIA rights and against anti-gender ideology . ^ Duignan, Brian (2018). \"Judith Butler\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved November 2, 2018 . ^ Rottenberg, Catherine (27 August 2003). \"Judith Butler\" . The Literary Encyclopedia . Retrieved 18 June 2022 . ^ Butler, Judith. 2025. “Academic Freedom in a Time of Destruction: Reconsidering Extramural Speech.” Social Research: An International Quarterly 92 (2): 407–46. ^ \"Judith Butler, European Graduate School\" . Retrieved 14 July 2015 . ^ Cite error: The named reference NewStatesman2020-09-22a was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference DerTagesspiegel2020-05-13a was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ “International Consortium of Critical Theory Programs | Directory of Programs, Centers, and Projects | International Consortium of Critical Theory Programs.” n.d. International Consortium of Critical Theory Programs | Directory of Programs, Centers, and Projects . Accessed January 8, 2026. https://directory.criticaltheoryconsortium.org/organizations/international-consortium-of-critical-theory-programs/. ^ Thulin, Lesley (19 April 2012). \"Feminist theorist Judith Butler rethinks kinship\" . Columbia Spectator . Archived from the original on September 25, 2015 . Retrieved 9 October 2013 . ^ Butler, Judith. 2022. “Chapter 4 GRIEVABILITY FOR THE LIVING.” In What World Is This?: A Pandemic Phenomenology . Columbia University Press. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7312/butl20828-006/html?lang=en&srsltid=AfmBOoq1UOytopstxsk2Ln9F8RAJB2q0Xj-mIS68vlEyEC2lFl_qnaDe. ^ Butler, Judith. 2012. Parting Ways: Jewishness and the Critique of Zionism . Columbia University Press. ^ \"Judith Butler\" . McGill Reporter . McGill. Archived from the original on September 25, 2015 . Retrieved 9 October 2013 . ^ Gans, Chaim (December 13, 2013). \"Review of Judith Butler's \"Parting Ways: Jewishness and the Critique of Zionism\" \" . Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews . Archived from the original on September 20, 2015 . Retrieved September 23, 2013 . ^ Butler, Judith (2023-10-13). \"The Compass of Mourning\" . London Review of Books . Vol. 45, no. 20. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 2023-10-18 . ^ Butler, Judith. 2024. Who’s Afraid of Gender? Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "American feminist and queer philosopher (born 1956) Judith Butler (born February 24, 1956) is an American feminist , queer philosopher, and gender studies scholar whose work has influenced political philosophy , ethics, psychoanalysis , and the fields of feminist and queer theory , academic freedom , and literary theory . Butler has held academic appointments at Wesleyan University , George Washington University , and Johns Hopkins University where they received tenure in 1992 before joining the faculty in the Department of Rhetoric at the University of California, Berkeley in 1993. There they became the Maxine Elliot Professor in 1998, holding faculty appointments in the Departments of Rhetoric and Comparative Literature and the Program in Critical Theory which they cofounded in 2007. They founded the International Consortium of Critical Theory, funded by the Mellon Foundation , in 2015. They also hold the Hannah Arendt Chair at the European Graduate School (EGS). Butler is best known for the books Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990) and Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (1993), in which they challenge conventional, heteronormative notions of gender and develop their theory of gender performativity . This theory has had a major influence on feminist and queer scholarship. Butler has also spoken and written on war , non-violence , ethics , public mourning , democratic theory and other contemporary political questions, including the Palestinian struggles and the limits of Zionism . They have also spoken internationally in support of LGBTQIA rights and against anti-gender ideology . ^ Duignan, Brian (2018). \"Judith Butler\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved November 2, 2018 . ^ Rottenberg, Catherine (27 August 2003). \"Judith Butler\" . The Literary Encyclopedia . Retrieved 18 June 2022 . ^ Butler, Judith. 2025. \"Academic Freedom in a Time of Destruction: Reconsidering Extramural Speech.\" Social Research: An International Quarterly 92 (2): 407–46. ^ \"Judith Butler, European Graduate School\" . Retrieved 14 July 2015 . ^ Cite error: The named reference NewStatesman2020-09-22a was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference DerTagesspiegel2020-05-13a was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"International Consortium of Critical Theory Programs | Directory of Programs, Centers, and Projects | International Consortium of Critical Theory Programs.\" n.d. International Consortium of Critical Theory Programs | Directory of Programs, Centers, and Projects . Accessed January 8, 2026. https://directory.criticaltheoryconsortium.org/organizations/international-consortium-of-critical-theory-programs/. ^ Thulin, Lesley (19 April 2012). \"Feminist theorist Judith Butler rethinks kinship\" . Columbia Spectator . Archived from the original on September 25, 2015 . Retrieved 9 October 2013 . ^ Butler, Judith. 2022. \"Chapter 4 GRIEVABILITY FOR THE LIVING.\" In What World Is This?: A Pandemic Phenomenology . Columbia University Press. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7312/butl20828-006/html?lang=en&srsltid=AfmBOoq1UOytopstxsk2Ln9F8RAJB2q0Xj-mIS68vlEyEC2lFl_qnaDe. ^ Butler, Judith. 2012. Parting Ways: Jewishness and the Critique of Zionism . Columbia University Press. ^ \"Judith Butler\" . McGill Reporter . McGill. Archived from the original on September 25, 2015 . Retrieved 9 October 2013 . ^ Gans, Chaim (December 13, 2013). \"Review of Judith Butler's \"Parting Ways: Jewishness and the Critique of Zionism\" \" . Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews . Archived from the original on September 20, 2015 . Retrieved September 23, 2013 . ^ Butler, Judith (2023-10-13). \"The Compass of Mourning\" . London Review of Books . Vol. 45, no. 20. ISSN 0260-9592 . Retrieved 2023-10-18 . ^ Butler, Judith. 2024. Who's Afraid of Gender? Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Joseph Massad",
   "pageid": 6334886,
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   "lead_before": "Jordanian academic and professor (born 1963) Joseph Andoni Massad ( Arabic : جوزيف مسعد ; born 1963) is a Jordanian academic specializing in Middle Eastern studies , who is Professor of Modern Arab Politics and Intellectual History in the Department of Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African Studies at Columbia University . His academic work has focused on Palestine , Zionism , Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis , and nationalism , identity , culture , and sexuality in the Arab world . Massad was born in Jordan in 1963 and is of Palestinian Christian descent. He received his Ph.D. in political science from Columbia University in 1998. He is known for his books The Persistence of the Palestinian Question: Essays on Zionism and the Palestinians and Desiring Arabs , about representations of sexual desire in the Arab world. ^ Otterman, Sharon (16 June 2025). \"Negotiation or Capitulation? How Columbia Got Off Trump's Hot Seat\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 17 June 2025 . ^ Whitaker, Brian. \"Distorting desire\" . al-bab.com . Retrieved 28 May 2024 . ^ Saul, Stephanie (17 April 2024). \"Who Are the Columbia Professors Mentioned in the House Hearing?\" . The New York Times . ^ \"Joseph Massad\" . Columbia University . Archived from the original on 13 September 2006 . Retrieved 20 September 2006 . ^ \"Joseph Massad\" . MESSAS . Columbia University. 28 September 2018.",
   "lead_after": "Jordanian academic and professor (born 1963) Joseph Andoni Massad ( Arabic : جوزيف مسعد ; born 1963) is a Jordanian academic specializing in Middle Eastern studies , who is Professor of Modern Arab Politics and Intellectual History in the Department of Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African Studies at Columbia University . His academic work has focused on Palestine , Zionism , Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis , and nationalism , identity , culture , and sexuality in the Arab world . Massad was born in Jordan in 1963 and is of Palestinian Christian descent. He received his Ph.D. in political science from Columbia University in 1998. He is known for his books The Persistence of the Palestinian Question: Essays on Zionism and the Palestinians and Desiring Arabs , about representations of sexual desire in the Arab world. ^ Otterman, Sharon (16 June 2025). \"Negotiation or Capitulation? How Columbia Got Off Trump's Hot Seat\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 17 June 2025 . ^ Whitaker, Brian. \"Distorting desire\" . al-bab.com . Retrieved 28 May 2024 . ^ Saul, Stephanie (17 April 2024). \"Who Are the Columbia Professors Mentioned in the House Hearing?\" . The New York Times . ^ \"Joseph Massad\" . Columbia University . Archived from the original on 13 September 2006 . Retrieved 20 September 2006 . ^ \"Joseph Massad\" . MESSAS . Columbia University. 28 September 2018."
  },
  {
   "title": "East Jerusalem",
   "pageid": 343508,
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   "lead_before": "Section of Jerusalem in the West Bank \"Arab Jerusalem\" redirects here. For the British newspaper, see Al-Quds Al-Arabi . View of Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Old City which are part of East Jerusalem 2025 United Nations OCHA map of the area, showing Israeli occupation arrangements Sieges Before Common Era 701 BCE 597 BCE 587 BCE 63 BCE 37 BCE Common Era 70 614 637 1099 1187 1244 1834 1917 1948 Places East West Old City Al-Aqsa Mosque compound / Temple Mount Dome of the Rock Qibli (Al-Aqsa) Mosque Western Wall Synagogues Mosques Church of the Holy Sepulchre Hebrew University Knesset Biblical Zoo Tomb of Lazarus Al-Quds University People Demographic history Mayor Chief Rabbi Grand Mufti Greek Orthodox Patriarch Crusader kings Political status Religious significance Judaism Christianity Islam Jerusalem Law Jerusalem Day Quds Day Judaization Islamization US recognition Other topics Names Municipality Seal Greater Jerusalem Cuisine City Line Transport Songs Historical maps v t e East Jerusalem ( Arabic : القدس الشرقية , romanized : al-Quds ash-Sharqiya ; Hebrew : מִזְרַח יְרוּשָׁלַיִם , romanized : Mizraḥ Yerushalayim ), the portion of Jerusalem east of the Green Line established formally by the armistice agreements at the end of the 1948 Palestine war , the territory which the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations consider to be the capital and part of the Palestinian territories according to international law , and under illegal occupation by Israel. Many states (e.g. Brazil, China, Russia, and all 57 members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ) recognize East Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine , whereas other states (eg. Finland, Ireland, Norway, Slovenia and Spain ) see East Jerusalem as the future capital of Palestine while referring to it as \"an occupied territory \". East Jerusalem includes the Old City and sites of religious significance to Muslims, Christians, and Jews. After the 1948 war, the territory was held by Jordan , as opposed to West Jerusalem , which became part of the newly established State of Israel . In the 1967 Arab–Israeli War , Israel captured and occupied East Jerusalem, then unilaterally annexed it in 1980. In 2020, East Jerusalem had a population of 595,000 inhabitants, of whom 361,700 (61%) were Palestinian Arabs and 234,000 (39%) were Jewish settlers . Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem are illegal under international law and in the eyes of the international community . Jerusalem was envisaged as a separate, international city under the 1947 UN partition plan . It was, however, divided by the 1948 war that followed Israel's declaration of independence . As a result of the 1949 Armistice Agreements , the city's western half came under Israeli control, while its eastern half, containing the famed Old City , fell under Jordanian control, at the exception of Mount Scopus enclave. Israel occupied East Jerusalem during the 1967 Six-Day War ; since then, the entire city has been under Israeli control. The 1980 Jerusalem Law declared unified Jerusalem the capital of Israel, formalizing the effective annexation of East Jerusalem . Palestinians and many in the international community consider East Jerusalem to be the future capital of the State of Palestine. The status of Jerusalem has been described as \"one of the most intractable issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict \", with conflicting claims to sovereignty over the city or parts of it, and access to its holy sites. Israeli and Palestinian definitions of East Jerusalem differ. Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Jerusalem's municipal boundaries were extended totaling an area three times the size of pre-war West Jerusalem. This includes several West Bank villages to the north, east and south of the Old City that are now considered neighborhoods of the city, as well as eight suburban neighborhoods that were built since then. The international community considers these neighborhoods illegal settlements , but the Israeli government disputes this. The Israeli position is based on the extended municipal boundaries, while the Palestinian position is based on the 1949 Agreements. East Jerusalem includes the Old City, which is home to many sites of seminal religious importance for the three major Abrahamic religions — Judaism , Christianity , and Islam , including the Temple Mount / Al-Aqsa , the Western Wall , the Dome of the Rock and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . Arab residents of East Jerusalem are increasingly becoming integrated into Israeli society, in terms of education, citizenship, national service and other aspects. ^ The Status of Jerusalem (PDF) (Report). New York, NY, USA: United Nations. 1997. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2025 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Top UN court says Israel's presence in occupied Palestinian territories is illegal and should end\" . ^ \"The Illegality of the Israeli Occupation of the Palestinian West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and Gaza: What the International Court of Justice Will Have to Determine in its Advisory Opinion for the United Nations General Assembly\" . Opinio Juris . 23 December 2022. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ \"East Jerusalem - OCHA\" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2023 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ \"Topônimos e gentílicos - Manual de Redação - FUNAG\" . funag.gov.br . Archived from the original on 28 January 2023 . Retrieved 13 June 2022 . ^ China supports Palestinian UN bid (Xinhua, 8 September 2011) Archived 16 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine \"China recognizes Palestine as a country with east Jerusalem as its capital and possessing full sovereignty and independence, in accordance with borders agreed upon in 1967, according to Jiang\" ^ Medvedev reaffirms Soviet recognition of Palestine (Ynet News, 18 January 2011) Archived 26 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine \"Russian president says Moscow has not changed its position since 1988 when it 'recognized independent Palestinian state with its capital in east Jerusalem'\" ^ Muslim leaders urge world to recognise East Jerusalem as capital of Palestine (France 24, 2017-12-13) Archived 27 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine \"their final statement declared \"East Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine\" and invited \"all countries to recognise the State of Palestine and East Jerusalem as its occupied capital.\"\" ^ \"Finland's country strategy for Palestine - 2021-2024\" . Archived from the original on 2 January 2023 . Retrieved 2 January 2023 . ^ \"Joint Statement of Spain, Ireland, Slovenia and Norway: A Renewed Commitment for the Implementation of the Two State Solution\" . Government of Ireland . Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade . 28 May 2025 . Retrieved 11 May 2026 . ^ Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères. \"Israel / Palestinian Territories – France condemns the expulsion of Mr Salah Hamouri (18 Dec. 2022)\" . France Diplomacy - Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs . Archived from the original on 30 December 2022 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ Dumper 2002 , p. 42. ^ \"Jerusalem Institute - 2022\" (PDF) . Retrieved 2 January 2023 . ^ \"Israel\" , The World Factbook , Central Intelligence Agency, 21 December 2022, archived from the original on 10 January 2021 , retrieved 2 January 2023 ^ Utenriksdepartementet (18 January 2010). \"Norge bekymret over situasjonen i Øst-Jerusalem\" . Regjeringen.no (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 2 January 2023 . Retrieved 2 January 2023 . ^ \"Israel approves new settler homes\" . BBC News . 5 April 2011. Archived from the original on 17 May 2011 . Retrieved 24 April 2018 . ^ Hasson 2000 , pp. 15–24. ^ Korman 1996 , p. 251. ^ \"Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel\" . Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 30 July 1980. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019 . Retrieved 2 April 2007 . ^ Leigh Phillips (19 November 2009). \"EU rebukes Israel for Jerusalem settlement expansion\" Archived 22 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine . EUObserver . \"The issue of Jerusalem is one of the most intractable issues in the Israel-Palestine conflict. While both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital, most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv while the occupied territories are administered by the Palestinian Authority in the town of Ramallah.\" ^ Farsakh 2005 , p. 9. ^ Hasson 2012 . ^ Koren, David (13 September 2018). \"The desire of eastern Jerusalem Arabs to integrate in Israeli society outweighs the threats of the Palestinian Authority\" . JISS . Archived from the original on 13 July 2022 . Retrieved 13 July 2022 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Section of Jerusalem in the West Bank \"Arab Jerusalem\" redirects here. For the British newspaper, see Al-Quds Al-Arabi . View of Al-Aqsa Mosque Compound and the Old City which are part of East Jerusalem 2025 United Nations OCHA map of the area, showing Israeli occupation arrangements Sieges Before Common Era 701 BCE 597 BCE 587 BCE 63 BCE 37 BCE Common Era 70 614 637 1099 1187 1244 1834 1917 1948 Places East West Old City Al-Aqsa Mosque compound / Temple Mount Dome of the Rock Qibli (Al-Aqsa) Mosque Western Wall Synagogues Mosques Church of the Holy Sepulchre Hebrew University Knesset Biblical Zoo Tomb of Lazarus Al-Quds University People Demographic history Mayor Chief Rabbi Grand Mufti Greek Orthodox Patriarch Crusader kings Political status Religious significance Judaism Christianity Islam Jerusalem Law Jerusalem Day Quds Day Judaization Islamization US recognition Other topics Names Municipality Seal Greater Jerusalem Cuisine City Line Transport Songs Historical maps v t e East Jerusalem ( Arabic : القدس الشرقية , romanized : al-Quds ash-Sharqiya ; Hebrew : מִזְרַח יְרוּשָׁלַיִם , romanized : Mizraḥ Yerushalayim ), the portion of Jerusalem east of the Green Line established formally by the armistice agreements at the end of the 1948 Palestine war , the territory which the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations consider to be the capital and part of the Palestinian territories according to international law , and under illegal occupation by Israel. Many states (e.g. Brazil, China, Russia, and all 57 members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ) recognize East Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine , whereas other states (eg. Finland, Ireland, Norway, Slovenia and Spain ) see East Jerusalem as the future capital of Palestine while referring to it as \"an occupied territory \". East Jerusalem includes the Old City and sites of religious significance to Muslims, Christians, and Jews. After the 1948 war, the territory was held by Jordan , as opposed to West Jerusalem , which became part of the newly established State of Israel . In the 1967 Arab–Israeli War , Israel captured and occupied East Jerusalem, then unilaterally annexed it in 1980. In 2020, East Jerusalem had a population of 595,000 inhabitants, of whom 361,700 (61%) were Palestinian Arabs and 234,000 (39%) were Jewish settlers . Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem are illegal under international law and in the eyes of the international community . Jerusalem was envisaged as a separate, international city under the 1947 UN partition plan . It was, however, divided by the 1948 war that followed Israel's declaration of independence . As a result of the 1949 Armistice Agreements , the city's western half came under Israeli control, while its eastern half, containing the famed Old City , fell under Jordanian control, at the exception of Mount Scopus enclave. Israel occupied East Jerusalem during the 1967 Six-Day War ; since then, the entire city has been under Israeli control. The 1980 Jerusalem Law declared unified Jerusalem the capital of Israel, formalizing the effective annexation of East Jerusalem . Palestinians and many in the international community consider East Jerusalem to be the future capital of the State of Palestine. The status of Jerusalem has been described as \"one of the most intractable issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict \", with conflicting claims to sovereignty over the city or parts of it, and access to its holy sites. Israeli and Palestinian definitions of East Jerusalem differ. Following the 1967 Six-Day War, Jerusalem's municipal boundaries were extended totaling an area three times the size of pre-war West Jerusalem. This includes several West Bank villages to the north, east and south of the Old City that are now considered neighborhoods of the city, as well as eight suburban neighborhoods that were built since then. The international community considers these neighborhoods illegal settlements , but the Israeli government disputes this. The Israeli position is based on the extended municipal boundaries, while the Palestinian position is based on the 1949 Agreements. East Jerusalem includes the Old City, which is home to many sites of seminal religious importance for the three major Abrahamic religions — Judaism , Christianity , and Islam , including the Temple Mount / Al-Aqsa , the Western Wall , the Dome of the Rock and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . Arab residents of East Jerusalem are increasingly becoming integrated into Israeli society, in terms of education, citizenship, national service and other aspects. ^ The Status of Jerusalem (PDF) (Report). New York, NY, USA: United Nations. 1997. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2025 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Top UN court says Israel's presence in occupied Palestinian territories is illegal and should end\" . ^ \"The Illegality of the Israeli Occupation of the Palestinian West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and Gaza: What the International Court of Justice Will Have to Determine in its Advisory Opinion for the United Nations General Assembly\" . Opinio Juris . 23 December 2022. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ \"East Jerusalem - OCHA\" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2023 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ \"Topônimos e gentílicos - Manual de Redação - FUNAG\" . funag.gov.br . Archived from the original on 28 January 2023 . Retrieved 13 June 2022 . ^ China supports Palestinian UN bid (Xinhua, 8 September 2011) Archived 16 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine \"China recognizes Palestine as a country with east Jerusalem as its capital and possessing full sovereignty and independence, in accordance with borders agreed upon in 1967, according to Jiang\" ^ Medvedev reaffirms Soviet recognition of Palestine (Ynet News, 18 January 2011) Archived 26 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine \"Russian president says Moscow has not changed its position since 1988 when it 'recognized independent Palestinian state with its capital in east Jerusalem'\" ^ Muslim leaders urge world to recognise East Jerusalem as capital of Palestine (France 24, 2017-12-13) Archived 27 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine \"their final statement declared \"East Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine\" and invited \"all countries to recognise the State of Palestine and East Jerusalem as its occupied capital.\"\" ^ \"Finland's country strategy for Palestine - 2021-2024\" . Archived from the original on 2 January 2023 . Retrieved 2 January 2023 . ^ \"Joint Statement of Spain, Ireland, Slovenia and Norway: A Renewed Commitment for the Implementation of the Two State Solution\" . Government of Ireland . Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade . 28 May 2025 . Retrieved 11 May 2026 . ^ Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères. \"Israel / Palestinian Territories – France condemns the expulsion of Mr Salah Hamouri (18 Dec. 2022)\" . France Diplomacy - Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs . Archived from the original on 30 December 2022 . Retrieved 3 January 2023 . ^ Dumper 2002 , p. 42. ^ \"Jerusalem Institute - 2022\" (PDF) . Retrieved 2 January 2023 . ^ \"Israel\" , The World Factbook , Central Intelligence Agency, 21 December 2022, archived from the original on 10 January 2021 , retrieved 2 January 2023 ^ Utenriksdepartementet (18 January 2010). \"Norge bekymret over situasjonen i Øst-Jerusalem\" . Regjeringen.no (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 2 January 2023 . Retrieved 2 January 2023 . ^ \"Israel approves new settler homes\" . BBC News . 5 April 2011. Archived from the original on 17 May 2011 . Retrieved 24 April 2018 . ^ Hasson 2000 , pp. 15–24. ^ Korman 1996 , p. 251. ^ \"Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel\" . Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 30 July 1980. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019 . Retrieved 2 April 2007 . ^ Leigh Phillips (19 November 2009). \"EU rebukes Israel for Jerusalem settlement expansion\" Archived 22 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine . EUObserver . \"The issue of Jerusalem is one of the most intractable issues in the Israel-Palestine conflict. While both Israelis and Palestinians claim Jerusalem as their capital, most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv while the occupied territories are administered by the Palestinian Authority in the town of Ramallah.\" ^ Farsakh 2005 , p. 9. ^ Hasson 2012 . ^ Koren, David (13 September 2018). \"The desire of eastern Jerusalem Arabs to integrate in Israeli society outweighs the threats of the Palestinian Authority\" . JISS . Archived from the original on 13 July 2022 . Retrieved 13 July 2022 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Gaza Strip famine",
   "pageid": 75828824,
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   "lead_before": "Famine during the Gaza war Displaced Palestinians gather to receive food from a charity in Deir al-Balah , Gaza Strip (June 2024). The population of the Gaza Strip underwent a famine as a result of an Israeli blockade during the Gaza war between 22 August 2025 and 19 December 2025. The prevention of basic essentials and humanitarian aid from entering Gaza, as well as airstrikes that destroyed food infrastructure, such as bakeries, mills, and food stores, caused a widespread scarcity of essential supplies. Humanitarian aid was also blocked by protests at borders and ports. Increasing societal breakdown in Gaza , including looting, was also cited as a barrier to the provision of aid. By August 2025, Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) projections showed that 100% of the population are experiencing \"high levels of acute food insecurity\", and 32% were projected to face Phase 5 catastrophic levels by 30 September 2025. On 22 August 2025, the IPC said that famine is taking place in one of the five governorates in the Gaza Strip: specifically, the Gaza Governorate which includes Gaza City . The IPC added that, within the next month, famine was likely to also occur in both the Deir al-Balah Governorate and the Khan Yunis Governorate . The IPC had insufficient data on the North Gaza Governorate for a classification but concluded that conditions were likely similar or worse than in the Gaza Governorate. Within the next 6 weeks as of 16 August, the number of people in IPC Phase 5 was expected to rise from 500,000 to over 640,000. On 22 October 2025, the International Court of Justice found that Israel is obliged to guarantee sufficient food to Gazans and to allow UNRWA to operate in Gaza. On 19 December, the IPC published a report declaring that there is no longer a famine in Gaza after improvements in food delivery following the ceasefire, but warned that the situation remains \"highly fragile\" with 100,000 still facing \"catastrophic conditions\", although that number was projected to decline to 1,900 by April 2026. As of January 2026, Gazans have received enough humanitarian aid to meet their basic food needs for the first time since the start of the war. ^ Khoury, Jack; Kubovich, Janiv (21 September 2025). \"Gaza Officials Say 75 Palestinians Killed by IDF Fire, Four Died of Malnutrition in Past Day\" . Haaretz . Retrieved 22 September 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference ft20241121 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"GAZA STRIP: Famine confirmed in Gaza Governorate, projected to expand | 1 July – 30 September 2025\" (PDF) . Integrated Food Security Phase Classification . 22 August 2025. ^ \"Famine confirmed for first time in Gaza\" . who.int . 22 August 2025 . Retrieved 21 December 2025 . ^ Nichols, Michelle (19 December 2025). \"Gaza no longer in famine after aid access improves, hunger monitor says\" . Reuters . Retrieved 19 December 2025 . ^ Knutson, Jacob (11 April 2024). \"U.S. aid official says famine has begun in northern Gaza\" . Axios . Archived from the original on 12 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 April 2024 . ^ \"The Guardian view on famine in Gaza: a human-made catastrophe\" . The Guardian . 19 March 2024. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024 . Retrieved 22 March 2024 . ^ \"Imminent famine in northern Gaza is 'entirely man-made disaster': Guterres\" . UN News . 18 March 2024. Archived from the original on 24 March 2024 . Retrieved 3 April 2024 . ^ \"Israel is starving Gaza\" (Press release). B'Tselem . 8 January 2024. Archived from the original on 13 February 2024 . Retrieved 17 January 2024 . ^ Nichols, Michelle (22 August 2025). \"Famine has struck Gaza, says global hunger monitor\" . Reuters . Retrieved 22 August 2025 . ^ Beaumont, Peter (24 August 2025). \"Declaration of famine in Gaza lays bare Israel's disregard for humanitarian duty\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 25 August 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference ICJ_2025Oct22_obligations_IL was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference apnews20251219 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Gaza: 100 per cent of basic food needs met for first time since 2023\" . UN News . 5 January 2026. Archived from the original on 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 5 February 2026 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Famine during the Gaza war Displaced Palestinians gather to receive food from a charity in Deir al-Balah , Gaza Strip (June 2024). The population of the Gaza Strip underwent a famine as a result of an Israeli blockade during the Gaza war between 22 August 2025 and 19 December 2025. The prevention of basic essentials and humanitarian aid from entering Gaza, as well as airstrikes that destroyed food infrastructure, such as bakeries, mills, and food stores, caused a widespread scarcity of essential supplies. Humanitarian aid was also blocked by protests at borders and ports. Increasing societal breakdown in Gaza , including looting, was also cited as a barrier to the provision of aid. By August 2025, Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) projections showed that 100% of the population are experiencing \"high levels of acute food insecurity\", and 32% were projected to face Phase 5 catastrophic levels by 30 September 2025. On 22 August 2025, the IPC said that famine is taking place in one of the five governorates in the Gaza Strip: specifically, the Gaza Governorate which includes Gaza City . The IPC added that, within the next month, famine was likely to also occur in both the Deir al-Balah Governorate and the Khan Yunis Governorate . The IPC had insufficient data on the North Gaza Governorate for a classification but concluded that conditions were likely similar or worse than in the Gaza Governorate. Within the next 6 weeks as of 16 August, the number of people in IPC Phase 5 was expected to rise from 500,000 to over 640,000. On 22 October 2025, the International Court of Justice found that Israel is obliged to guarantee sufficient food to Gazans and to allow UNRWA to operate in Gaza. On 19 December, the IPC published a report declaring that there is no longer a famine in Gaza after improvements in food delivery following the ceasefire, but warned that the situation remains \"highly fragile\" with 100,000 still facing \"catastrophic conditions\", although that number was projected to decline to 1,900 by April 2026. As of January 2026, Gazans have received enough humanitarian aid to meet their basic food needs for the first time since the start of the war. ^ Khoury, Jack; Kubovich, Janiv (21 September 2025). \"Gaza Officials Say 75 Palestinians Killed by IDF Fire, Four Died of Malnutrition in Past Day\" . Haaretz . Retrieved 22 September 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference ft20241121 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"GAZA STRIP: Famine confirmed in Gaza Governorate, projected to expand | 1 July – 30 September 2025\" (PDF) . Integrated Food Security Phase Classification . 22 August 2025. ^ \"Famine confirmed for first time in Gaza\" . who.int . 22 August 2025 . Retrieved 21 December 2025 . ^ Nichols, Michelle (19 December 2025). \"Gaza no longer in famine after aid access improves, hunger monitor says\" . Reuters . Retrieved 19 December 2025 . ^ Knutson, Jacob (11 April 2024). \"U.S. aid official says famine has begun in northern Gaza\" . Axios . Archived from the original on 12 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 April 2024 . ^ \"The Guardian view on famine in Gaza: a human-made catastrophe\" . The Guardian . 19 March 2024. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024 . Retrieved 22 March 2024 . ^ \"Imminent famine in northern Gaza is 'entirely man-made disaster': Guterres\" . UN News . 18 March 2024. Archived from the original on 24 March 2024 . Retrieved 3 April 2024 . ^ \"Israel is starving Gaza\" (Press release). B'Tselem . 8 January 2024. Archived from the original on 13 February 2024 . Retrieved 17 January 2024 . ^ Nichols, Michelle (22 August 2025). \"Famine has struck Gaza, says global hunger monitor\" . Reuters . Retrieved 22 August 2025 . ^ Beaumont, Peter (24 August 2025). \"Declaration of famine in Gaza lays bare Israel's disregard for humanitarian duty\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 25 August 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference ICJ_2025Oct22_obligations_IL was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference apnews20251219 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Gaza: 100 per cent of basic food needs met for first time since 2023\" . UN News . 5 January 2026. Archived from the original on 14 January 2026 . Retrieved 5 February 2026 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Tantura massacre",
   "pageid": 17828216,
   "revid_before": 1359052606,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-05T17:27:26Z",
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tantura_massacre&oldid=1362694343",
   "lead_before": "1948 IDF killing of Palestinian civilians The Tantura massacre took place on 22–23 May 1948 during the 1948 Palestine war , when Palestinian villagers were massacred by Israel 's Haganah (a precursor to the Israel Defense Forces ), namely the Alexandroni Brigade . The massacre occurred after the surrender of the village of Tantura , a small village of roughly 1,500 located near Haifa . The number of those killed is unknown, with estimates ranging from \"dozens\" to 200+. After the massacre, most of the village was destroyed and its residents were expelled, forming a part of the broader expulsion of Palestinians during the 1948 war and the Nakba . Many of the women and children were transported to the nearby town of Furaydis . The Israeli kibbutz and beach resort of Nahsholim was established on the site of the depopulated village. The victims were buried in mass graves, one of them presently beneath a parking lot for the nearby Tel Dor beach. Initially, there were few reports of the massacre and oral testimonies by surviving Palestinians were met by skepticism by some historians. A 1998 thesis by an Israeli Haifa University graduate who interviewed Israeli veterans and survivors, brought international attention to the massacre and caused an academic debate and controversy. The Israeli New Historians , most prominently Ilan Pappe , affirmed that a massacre had taken place. In a 2022 Israeli documentary film called Tantura , several Israeli veterans interviewed said they had witnessed a massacre at Tantura after the village had surrendered. In 2023, Forensic Architecture published its commissioned investigation of the area and concluded that there were three potential gravesites in the area of the Tel Dor beach that were connected to a massacre. ^ Hashem Abushama, According to Whose Archives?: The Tantura Massacre and Revisionist Israeli Historiography , January 30 2022, Institute for Palestine Studies. https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/1652421 \"There also remains a mass grave. [...] It reportedly contains between a few dozens to more than 200 buried corpses of Palestinian men who were massacred\" ^ Blackwell, Sue. \"Review Essay: States of Denial.\" Holy Land Studies: A Multidisciplinary Journal, vol. 6 no. 1, 2007, p. 113-118. Project MUSE, https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hls.2007.0016 . \"Ilan Pappé [...] has documented in detail the massacre of some 200 men, women and children at Tantura on 22–23 May 1948\" ^ Nur Masalha, 2012, The Palestine Nakba: Decolonising History, Narrating the Subaltern, Reclaiming Memory . Quotation: \"Al-Tantura, 22–23 May 1948: between 70 and 200 Palestinian civilians were killed (Fearn 2006: 424), in a large-scale, well-planned massacre\" ^ John Pilger , New Statesman, 6/3/2002, Vol. 131, Issue 4590. \"In May 1948, more than 200 Palestinians were killed by the advancing Jewish militia in the coastal village of Tantura, south of Haifa.\" Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "1948 IDF killing of Palestinian civilians The Tantura massacre took place on 22–23 May 1948 during the 1948 Palestine war , when Palestinian villagers were massacred by Israel 's Haganah (a precursor to the Israel Defense Forces ), namely the Alexandroni Brigade . The massacre occurred after the surrender of the village of Tantura , a small village of roughly 1,500 located near Haifa . The number of those killed is unknown, with estimates ranging from \"dozens\" to 200+. After the massacre, most of the village was destroyed and its residents were expelled, forming a part of the broader expulsion of Palestinians during the 1948 war and the Nakba . Many of the women and children were transported to the nearby town of Furaydis . The Israeli kibbutz and beach resort of Nahsholim was established on the site of the depopulated village. The victims were buried in mass graves, one of them presently beneath a parking lot for the nearby Tel Dor beach. Initially, there were few reports of the massacre and oral testimonies by surviving Palestinians were met by skepticism by some historians. A 1998 thesis by an Israeli Haifa University graduate who interviewed Israeli veterans and survivors, brought international attention to the massacre and caused an academic debate and controversy. The Israeli New Historians , most prominently Ilan Pappe , affirmed that a massacre had taken place. In a 2022 Israeli documentary film called Tantura , several Israeli veterans interviewed said they had witnessed a massacre at Tantura after the village had surrendered. In 2023, Forensic Architecture published its commissioned investigation of the area and concluded that there were three potential gravesites in the area of the Tel Dor beach that were connected to a massacre. ^ Hashem Abushama, According to Whose Archives?: The Tantura Massacre and Revisionist Israeli Historiography , January 30 2022, Institute for Palestine Studies. https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/1652421 \"There also remains a mass grave. [...] It reportedly contains between a few dozens to more than 200 buried corpses of Palestinian men who were massacred\" ^ Blackwell, Sue. \"Review Essay: States of Denial.\" Holy Land Studies: A Multidisciplinary Journal, vol. 6 no. 1, 2007, p. 113-118. Project MUSE, https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hls.2007.0016 . \"Ilan Pappé [...] has documented in detail the massacre of some 200 men, women and children at Tantura on 22–23 May 1948\" ^ Nur Masalha, 2012, The Palestine Nakba: Decolonising History, Narrating the Subaltern, Reclaiming Memory . Quotation: \"Al-Tantura, 22–23 May 1948: between 70 and 200 Palestinian civilians were killed (Fearn 2006: 424), in a large-scale, well-planned massacre\" ^ John Pilger , New Statesman, 6/3/2002, Vol. 131, Issue 4590. \"In May 1948, more than 200 Palestinians were killed by the advancing Jewish militia in the coastal village of Tantura, south of Haifa.\" Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Israeli–Palestinian conflict",
   "pageid": 46216,
   "revid_before": 1361831608,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-26T12:16:40Z",
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   "lead_before": "Ongoing military and political conflict in West Asia For the current phase of the conflict beginning in October 2023, see Gaza war . For the wider regional conflict, see Arab–Israeli conflict . Belligerents Israel Pre-1948: Yishuv Bar-Giora Hashomer Haganah Irgun Lehi 1948–present: Israeli security forces Israeli settlers (since 1967 ) Palestinians Pre-1948: Muslim-Christian Associations Palestine Arab Congress Arab Higher Committee 1948–present: 1948: Arab Higher Committee All-Palestine Protectorate Army of the Holy War 1949–1956: Palestinian fedayeen 1964–2005: PLO (1964–2005) UNLU (1987–1993) Palestinian Authority (1994–2005) 2007–present: Hamas government Palestinian Joint Operations Room (2018–present) Casualties and losses 9,901–10,239 killed 104,701–110,887 killed By event: More than 700,000 Palestinians displaced with a further 413,000 Palestinians displaced in the Six-Day War ; 2,000+ Jews displaced in 1948 6,373 Israeli and 13,000–16,000 Palestinian deaths in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . 654 Israeli and 19,085 Palestinian and Lebanese deaths in the 1982 Lebanon War in addition to 800–3,500 in the Sabra-Shatila massacre . 1,962 Palestinians and 179–200 Israeli deaths in the First Intifada . 1,010 Israelis and 3,179–3,354 Palestinian deaths in the Second Intifada . 402 Palestinians killed in the 2006 Gaza–Israel conflict . 1,116 –1,417 Palestinian deaths in the Gaza War (2008–2009) . 2,125–2,310 Palestinian deaths in the 2014 Gaza War . 285 Palestinian and 17 Israeli deaths in the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis . As of 30 June 2026 , at least 81,066+ Palestinians and 2,039+ Israelis killed in the Gaza war with a further 1,900,000 Palestinians displaced within Gaza and 135,000 Israeli evacuees. Indirect deaths likely to be several times higher than those killed by violence, with estimates for total Palestinian deaths in the Gaza war are between 186,000 – 335,500 Israel and the Palestinians are engaged in an ongoing military and political conflict about land and self-determination within the former territory of Mandatory Palestine . Key aspects of the conflict have included Palestinian refugees , the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip , the status of Jerusalem , Israeli settlements , borders, security, water rights, the permit regime in the West Bank and in the Gaza Strip , Palestinian freedom of movement , and the Palestinian right of return . The conflict has its origins in the rise of Zionism in the late 19th century in Europe, a movement which aimed to establish a Jewish state through colonization in the region of Palestine . The Zionist movement garnered the support of an imperial power in the 1917 Balfour Declaration issued by Britain, which promised to support the creation of a \" Jewish homeland \" in Palestine. Following British occupation of the formerly Ottoman region during World War I , Mandatory Palestine was established as a British mandate . Increasing Jewish immigration led to the rapid growth of the Yishuv , or Jewish population in Palestine, heightening tensions and conflict between Jews and Arabs over land and economic issues. The 1936 Arab general strike led to the Peel Commission investigation, and began the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine , which demanded an end to British colonial rule and its support for Zionism. Eventually, the inability of British government to resolve tensions led to the creation of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine . The United Nations later voted to adopt their recommendations as a partition plan in 1947. The plan was rejected by the Arab Higher Committee and the Arab League , triggering the 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine . During the ensuing 1948 Palestine war , the State of Israel was founded and more than half of the mandate's predominantly Palestinian Arab population fled or were expelled by Israeli forces, referred to by Palestinians as the Nakba . By the end of the war, Israel was established on most of the former mandate's territory, and the Gaza Strip and the West Bank were controlled by Egypt and Jordan respectively. Since the 1967 Six-Day War , Israel has been occupying the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, known collectively as the Palestinian territories . Two Palestinian uprisings against Israel and its occupation erupted in 1987 and 2000, the first and second intifadas respectively. Israel's occupation resulted in Israel constructing illegal settlements there, creating a system of institutionalized discrimination against Palestinians under its occupation referred to as Israeli apartheid . This discrimination includes Israel's denial of Palestinian refugees from their right of return and right to their lost properties . Israel has also drawn international condemnation for violating the human rights of the Palestinians . The international community, with exceptions including the United States and Israel that prefer bilateral negotiations, has largely been in consensus since the 1980s regarding a settlement of the conflict on the basis of a two-state solution along the 1967 borders and a just resolution for Palestinian refugees. In recent years, public support for a two-state solution has decreased, with Israeli policy reflecting an interest in maintaining the occupation, rather than seeking a permanent resolution to the conflict. In 2007, Israel tightened its blockade of the Gaza Strip and made official its policy of isolating it from the West Bank. Since then, Israel has framed its relationship with Gaza in terms of the laws of war , rather than in terms of its status as an occupying power . In a July 2024 advisory opinion , the International Court of Justice (ICJ) determined that Israel continues to illegally occupy the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Since 2006, Israel has fought several wars with the ruling party in the Gaza Strip, Hamas . Attacks by Hamas-led armed groups in October 2023 in Israel, which resulted in nearly 1,200 deaths, were followed by another war , which has caused widespread destruction, loss of life, mass population displacement , a humanitarian crisis , and a famine in the Gaza Strip. Israel's actions in Gaza during this war have been described by international law experts, genocide scholars and human rights organizations as a genocide . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Robinson, Kali (17 January 2024). \"Who Governs the Palestinians?\" . Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 18 January 2024 . Retrieved 30 July 2024 . ^ \"Occupied Palestinian Territory: Overview Map | December 2011\" . United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . 25 January 2012. Archived from the original on 11 November 2023 . Retrieved 11 November 2023 . ^ Morris 2004 , pp. 602–604 ^ Brown, Jeremy (2003). Six Days: How the 1967 War Shaped the Middle East . Simon & Schuster , 2012. ISBN 978-1-4711-1475-5 . UNRWA put the figure at 413 000 ^ Dumper, Michael (1997). The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967 . Columbia University Press . p. 67. ISBN 9780585388717 . ^ Garfinkle, Adam M. (2000). Politics and Society in Modern Israel: Myths and Realities . M. E. Sharpe . p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7656-0514-6 . ^ Laurens, Henry (2005). La question de Palestine [ The Question of Palestine ] (in French). Fayard . p. 194. ISBN 9789953455211 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . Caplan, Neil (2019). The Israel-Palestine Conflict . Wiley . p. 114. ISBN 9781119524014 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . Loewenstein, Antony (2023). The Palestine Laboratory . Verso . p. 12. ISBN 9781839762109 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . Mattar, Philip (2005). Encyclopedia of the Palestinians . Facts On File, Incorporated . p. 329. ISBN 9780816069866 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . ^ Uri Ben-Eliezer, War over Peace: One Hundred Years of Israel's Militaristic Nationalism , University of California Press (2019) ^ Cite error: The named reference Race was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kober, Avi (2005). \"From Blitzkrieg To Attrition: Israel's Attrition Strategy and Staying Power\". Small Wars & Insurgencies . 16 (2): 216– 240. doi : 10.1080/09592310500080005 . ^ Nasrallah, Nami (2013). \"The First and Second Palestinian intifadas \" . In Newman, David; Peters, Joel (eds.). Routledge Handbook on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict . Routledge . pp. 56– 68. ISBN 978-0-415-77862-6 . ^ \"Fatalities since the outbreak of the second intifada and until operation \"Cast Lead\" \" . B'Tselem . Archived from the original on 1 July 2010. ^ \"Palestinians killed by Israeli security forces in the Gaza Strip, before Operation \"Cast Lead\" \" . B'Tselem . Archived from the original on 10 March 2013 . Retrieved 18 February 2024 . ^ Lappin, Yaakov (2009). \"IDF releases Cast Lead casualty numbers\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 26 March 2013 . Retrieved 5 January 2024 . ^ \"Confirmed figures reveal the true extent of the destruction inflicted upon the Gaza Strip; Israel's offensive resulted in 1,417 dead, including 926 civilians, 255 police officers, and 236 fighters\" . Palestinian Centre for Human Rights . 12 March 2009. Archived from the original on 12 June 2009 . Retrieved 5 January 2024 . ^ \"Report of the detailed findings of the independent commission of inquiry established pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution S-21/1\" . UN Human Rights Office . Human Rights Council. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017 . Retrieved 16 May 2024 . ^ \"2021 was the deadliest year since 2014, Israel killed 319 Palestinians in oPt 5-year record in house demolitions: 895 Palestinians lost their homes\" . B'Tselem . 4 January 2022. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022 . Retrieved 4 January 2022 . ^ \"Gaza death toll since October 2023 rises to 73,066\" . News.Az . 30 June 2026. ^ \"A father in Gaza searches for his family's bones in the rubble of their home\" . Associated Press . 11 February 2026. ^ \"WHO Health Cluster Dashboard – West Bank and Gaza\" . World Health Organization – Eastern Mediterranean Region (Occupied Palestinian Territory) . World Health Organization. 21 February 2026 . Retrieved 22 February 2026 – via linked as 'WHO Health Cluster Dashboard – West and Gaza'. \"WHO OPT Dashboards\" . ^ \"IDF denies report claiming that its own database found that vast majority of Gaza dead were civilians\" . The Times of Israel . 21 August 2025 . Retrieved 12 February 2026 . In January, the military said 20,000 terror operatives had been killed, and yesterday it updated that number to over 22,000. In May, IDF officials said that the combatant-to-civilian deaths ratio has remained relatively the same throughout the war, with two to three civilians killed for every dead Hamas terror operative. ^ \"Swords of Iron: Civilian Casualties\" . gov.il . 3 December 2025 . Retrieved 26 January 2026 . ^ \"1,152 security personnel killed, 885 children bereaved: Two years on from Oct. 7, Defense Ministry data shows the toll of war\" . Times of Israel . 6 October 2025. ^ Bisset, Victoria; Ledur, Júlia; Shapiro, Leslie (5 March 2025). \"Monitoring the status of hostages still in Gaza after Hamas's attack\" . The Washington Post . ^ \"IDF soldier killed in friendly fire incident in southern Gaza\" . Ynet . 26 February 2026. ^ Tétrault-Farber, Gabrielle (6 December 2023). \"UN rights chief warns of heightened risk of 'atrocity crimes' in Gaza\" . Reuters . Retrieved 3 January 2024 . ^ Lev, Gid'on (27 February 2024). \"The Tragedy of Israel's 135,000 Displaced Citizens\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 8 October 2024 . Retrieved 18 July 2024 . ^ Garry, S.; Checchi, F. (2020), \"Armed conflict and public health: Into the 21st century\", Journal of Public Health , 42 (3): e287– e298, doi : 10.1093/pubmed/fdz095 , PMID 31822891 ^ Bloxham 2025 , pp. 23–24: \"A study of traumatic injury deaths in Gaza in The Lancet using multiple data sources and capture-recapture analysis suggested that the MoH's methods, far from producing an exaggerated number, actually under-estimated the death toll by around 41 percent. ... When considering the total 'excess mortality,' we need to add the Palestinians who have died because of the blockade in combination with the IDF's destruction of health and sanitation and food infrastructure. As public health experts noted, in many wars, 'most deaths' are 'due to the indirect [sic] impacts of war: malnutrition, communicable disease, exacerbations of noncommunicable disease, [and] maternal and infant disorders.'117 'Indirect' would be the wrong word for this conflict given the nature of Israeli policies, including the systematic obstruction of supplies into Gaza.\" ^ Khatib, Rasha; McKee, Martin; Yusuf, Salim (2024). \"Counting the dead in Gaza: difficult but essential\" . The Lancet . 404 (10449). Elsevier BV: 237– 238. doi : 10.1016/s0140-6736(24)01169-3 . ISSN 0140-6736 . PMID 38976995 . In recent conflicts, such indirect deaths range from three to 15 times the number of direct deaths. Applying a conservative estimate of four indirect deaths per one direct death to the 37,396 deaths reported, it is not implausible to estimate that up to 186,000 or even more deaths could be attributable to the current conflict in Gaza. Using the 2022 Gaza Strip population estimate of 2,375,259, this would translate to 7.9% of the total population in the Gaza Strip. ^ Sridhar, Devi (5 September 2024). \"Scientists are closing in on the true, horrifying scale of death and disease in Gaza\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 13 September 2024 . ^ Waxman, Dov (2019). The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: What Everyone Needs to Know . New York: Oxford University Press . p. 2. ISBN 978-0190625337 . ^ Gelvin, James L. (2021). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: A History (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . p. 6. ISBN 9781108771634 . ^ \"A History of Conflict: Introduction\" . A History of Conflict . BBC News . Archived from the original on 20 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 December 2008 . ^ \"Canadian Policy on Key Issues in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict\" . Government of Canada . Archived from the original on 18 February 2018 . Retrieved 13 March 2010 . ^ \"Movement and Access Restrictions in the West Bank: Uncertainty and Inefficiency in the Palestinian Economy\" (PDF) . World Bank . 9 May 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2010 . Retrieved 29 March 2010 . Currently, freedom of movement and access for Palestinians within the West Bank is the exception rather than the norm contrary to the commitments undertaken in a number of Agreements between GOI and the PA. In particular, both the Oslo Accords and the Road Map were based on the principle that normal Palestinian economic and social life would be unimpeded by restrictions ^ Khalidi 2020 , pp. 7–8. ^ Shafir 1996 , p. xiii: \"The goal of Zionism, however, was to successfully colonize Palestine while at the same time justifying the creation of a homogeneous Jewish settlement through an intensifying denial of Palestinian national aspirations.\" ^ Neal, Lorena S. (May 1995). \"Honors Projects\". The Roots of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: 1882–1914 . Illinois Wesleyan University . Archived from the original on 23 August 2017 . Retrieved 22 August 2017 . ^ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (26 October 2020). \"Balfour Declaration | History & Impact\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015 . Retrieved 28 May 2021 . ^ Khalidi 2024 , p. 108: \"The repression of the revolt had an impact not only on the populace, but also on the Palestinians' ability to fight thereafter, and on the already fractured capabilities of their national leadership. A high proportion of the Arab casualties included the most experienced military cadres and enterprising fighters.6 By the end of the revolt, most of the top Arab political leaders and thousands of other cadres, militants, and fighters were imprisoned, interned by the British in the Seychelles, in exile, or dead. The British also confiscated large quantities of arms and ammunition from the Arabs during the revolt, and continued to do so during later years. By the end of the revolt, existing political divisions within the Palestinian polity had become envenomed, leading to profound rifts between the majority supporting the revolt and a minority that had become alienated from the leadership: the consequence was assassinations, infighting, and further weakening of the Palestinian position. The impact of the revolt on the Palestinian economy was also severe, although some of that damage was self-inflicted, as a boycott of British and Jewish goods and of the mandatory government during the strike and the revolt simply opened up opportunities for the already larger Jewish-controlled sector of the economy of Palestine to expand further.\" ^ Khalidi 2020 , p. 44 ^ Morris, Benny (2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War . New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 63– 66. ISBN 9780300126969 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: date and year ( link ) ^ Pappé, Ilan (2007). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine . Oneworld Publications . ISBN 978-1-78074-056-0 . ^ Morris 1999 ^ Human Rights Watch, \"A Threshold Crossed: Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution,\" 27 April 2021, hrw.org; Amnesty International, \"Israel's Apartheid Against Palestinians: Cruel System of Domination and Crime Against Humanity,\" 1 February 2022, amnesty.org; Michael Sfard, The Israeli Occupation of the West Bank and the Crime of Apartheid: Legal Opinion (Yesh Din, June 2022), yesh-din.org; B'Tselem, \"A Regime of Jewish Supremacy from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea: This Is Apartheid,\" position paper, 12 January 2021, btselem.org ^ Totten, S. (2017). Last Lectures on the Prevention and Intervention of Genocide . Routledge Studies in Genocide and Crimes against Humanity. Taylor & Francis . p. 64. ISBN 978-1-315-40976-4 . Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 . Retrieved 31 March 2023 . ^ McHardy, Martha. \"All Nations That Voted Against Two-State Israeli-Palestinian Solution\" . Newsweek . Retrieved 7 April 2026 . ^ Feuer, Hannah (22 September 2025). \"142 countries have voted for a path to Israeli-Palestinian peace, why are these 10 countries opposed?\" . The Forward . Retrieved 7 April 2026 . ^ Dannenbaum, Tom; Dill, Janina (2024). \"International Law in Gaza: Belligerent Intent and Provisional Measures\" . American Journal of International Law . 118 (4): 659– 683. doi : 10.1017/ajil.2024.53 . ^ \"GAZA STRIP: Famine confirmed in Gaza Governorate, projected to expand | 1 July - 30 September 2025\" (PDF) . Integrated Food Security Phase Classification . 22 August 2025. ^ Speri, Alice (20 December 2024). \"Defining genocide: how a rift over Gaza sparked a crisis among scholars\" . Guardian . Retrieved 23 December 2024 . Narea, Nicole (25 October 2024). \"Is Israel committing genocide? Reexamining the question, a year later\" . Vox . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . ^ Legal Scholars: Abrahams, Jessica (26 November 2024). \" 'A world with no holocausts': The Shoah survivor backing ICC prosecutions\" . Prospect Magazine . Mohyeldin, Ayman; Hamdan, Basel (10 December 2024). \"Why Amnesty International and other experts say Israel is committing genocide in Gaza\" . MSNBC . Archived from the original on 3 July 2025. Aryeh Neier, founder of Human Rights Watch and one of the leading human rights experts in the world — also a Jewish refugee who fled Nazi Germany — told me back in June that, in his view, what Israel was doing in Gaza is a genocide. \"International Expert Statement on Israeli State Crime\" . International State Crime Initiative. 9 January 2024. Archived from the original on 1 June 2024. Kring, Franziska; Kolter, Max. \"Is Israel Committing Genocide in the Gaza Strip?\" . Legal Tribune Online . Sultany, Nimer (2026). \"A Threshold Crossed: On Genocidal Intent and the Duty to Prevent Genocide in Palestine\" . Journal of Genocide Research : 1– 26. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2024.2351261 . Governments, Political Figures, and Policy Organizations: Albanese, Francesca (25 March 2024). Anatomy of a Genocide: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, Francesca Albanese (PDF) (Report). United Nations Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories . p. 1. By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met Amnesty International (2024). 'You Feel Like You Are Subhuman': Israel's Genocide Against Palestinians In Gaza (PDF) (Report). p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2024. This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide. B'Tselem (July 2025). Our Genocide (PDF) (Report). p. 86. The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid — all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip. \"EMERGENCY LEGAL BRIEFING PAPER: Israel's Unfolding Crime of Genocide of the Palestinian People & U.S. Failure to Prevent and Complicity in Genocide\" (PDF) . Center for Constitutional Rights. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2023. Conley, Julia (3 January 2024). \"100+ Global Rights Groups Urge Support for South Africa's Genocide Case Against Israel at ICJ\" . Common Dreams. Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. \"Statement on Why We Call the Israeli Attack on Gaza Genocide\" . Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention. Archived from the original on 14 February 2024. \"Gaza genocide\" . Medecins Sans Frontieres . Archived from the original on 10 July 2025. \"Israel has committed genocide in the Gaza Strip, UN Commission finds\" . United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner . 16 September 2025. Holocaust and Genocide Studies Scholars: Bartov, Omer (15 July 2025). \"I'm a Genocide Scholar. I Know It When I See It\" . The New York Times . Bloxham, Donald (2026). \"The 7 October Atrocities and the Annihilation of Gaza: Causes and Responsibilities\" . Journal of Genocide Studies . 28 (2): 294– 319. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2025.2483546 . Komnenic, Ana (2 December 2023). \"Experts, advocates deeply divided on question of 'genocide' in Gaza\" . CBC News . Adam Jones, a political science professor at the University of British Columbia Okanagan and author of a textbook in genocide studies, says use of the term has erupted since Oct. 7, but that the extremes of both parties to the conflict have shown \"genocidal strands and ideologies\" going back decades. I believe that the events of Oct. 7 qualify as a genocidal massacre of Israelis. I also think that the Israeli response, and indeed long standing Israeli policy towards the Gazan population, evinces elements of genocidal thinking and increasingly practice Levene, Mark (2026). \"Gaza 2023: Words Matter, Lives Matter More\" . Journal of Genocide Research . 28 (1): 25– 31. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2024.2301866 . Üngör, Uğur Ümit (2026). \"Screaming, Silence, and Mass Violence in Israel/Palestine\" . Journal of Genocide Research . 28 (1): 38– 46. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2024.2309709 . Tharoor, Ishaan (30 July 2025). \"Leading genocide scholars see a genocide happening in Gaza\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . van Laarhoven, Kasper; Peek, Eva; Walters, Derk (14 May 2025). \"Zeven gerenommeerde wetenschappers vrijwel eensgezind: Israël pleegt in Gaza genocide\" . NRC (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 15 May 2025 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . Other Scholars: Waxman, Dov (1 August 2025). \"Why I changed my mind on the genocide charge against Israel\" . Medium.",
   "lead_after": "Ongoing military and political conflict in West Asia For the current phase of the conflict beginning in October 2023, see Gaza war . For the wider regional conflict, see Arab–Israeli conflict . Belligerents Israel Pre-1948: Yishuv Bar-Giora Hashomer Haganah Irgun Lehi 1948–present: Israeli security forces Israeli settlers (since 1967 ) Palestinians Pre-1948: Muslim-Christian Associations Palestine Arab Congress Arab Higher Committee 1948–present: 1948: Arab Higher Committee All-Palestine Protectorate Army of the Holy War 1949–1956: Palestinian fedayeen 1964–2005: PLO (1964–2005) UNLU (1987–1993) Palestinian Authority (1994–2005) 2007–present: Hamas government Palestinian Joint Operations Room (2018–present) Casualties and losses 9,901–10,239 killed 104,701–110,887 killed By event: More than 700,000 Palestinians displaced with a further 413,000 Palestinians displaced in the Six-Day War ; 2,000+ Jews displaced in 1948 6,373 Israeli and 13,000–16,000 Palestinian deaths in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . 654 Israeli and 19,085 Palestinian and Lebanese deaths in the 1982 Lebanon War in addition to 800–3,500 in the Sabra-Shatila massacre . 1,962 Palestinians and 179–200 Israeli deaths in the First Intifada . 1,010 Israelis and 3,179–3,354 Palestinian deaths in the Second Intifada . 402 Palestinians killed in the 2006 Gaza–Israel conflict . 1,116 –1,417 Palestinian deaths in the Gaza War (2008–2009) . 2,125–2,310 Palestinian deaths in the 2014 Gaza War . 285 Palestinian and 17 Israeli deaths in the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis . As of 26 July 2026 , at least 81,326+ Palestinians and 2,039+ Israelis killed in the Gaza war with a further 1,900,000 Palestinians displaced within Gaza and 135,000 Israeli evacuees. Indirect deaths likely to be several times higher than those killed by violence, with estimates for total Palestinian deaths in the Gaza war are between 186,000 – 335,500 Israel and the Palestinians are engaged in an ongoing military and political conflict about land and self-determination within the former territory of Mandatory Palestine . Key aspects of the conflict have included Palestinian refugees , the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip , the status of Jerusalem , Israeli settlements , borders, security, water rights, the permit regime in the West Bank and in the Gaza Strip , Palestinian freedom of movement , and the Palestinian right of return . The conflict has its origins in the rise of Zionism in the late 19th century in Europe, a movement which aimed to establish a Jewish state through colonization in the region of Palestine . The Zionist movement garnered the support of an imperial power in the 1917 Balfour Declaration issued by Britain, which promised to support the creation of a \" Jewish homeland \" in Palestine. Following British occupation of the formerly Ottoman region during World War I , Mandatory Palestine was established as a British mandate . Increasing Jewish immigration led to the rapid growth of the Yishuv , or Jewish population in Palestine, heightening tensions and conflict between Jews and Arabs over land and economic issues. The 1936 Arab general strike led to the Peel Commission investigation, and began the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine , which demanded an end to British colonial rule and its support for Zionism. Eventually, the inability of British government to resolve tensions led to the creation of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine . The United Nations later voted to adopt their recommendations as a partition plan in 1947. The plan was rejected by the Arab Higher Committee and the Arab League , triggering the 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine . During the ensuing 1948 Palestine war , the State of Israel was founded and more than half of the mandate's predominantly Palestinian Arab population fled or were expelled by Israeli forces, referred to by Palestinians as the Nakba . By the end of the war, Israel was established on most of the former mandate's territory, and the Gaza Strip and the West Bank were controlled by Egypt and Jordan respectively. Since the 1967 Six-Day War , Israel has been occupying the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, known collectively as the Palestinian territories . Two Palestinian uprisings against Israel and its occupation erupted in 1987 and 2000, the first and second intifadas respectively. Israel's occupation resulted in Israel constructing illegal settlements there, creating a system of institutionalized discrimination against Palestinians under its occupation referred to as Israeli apartheid . This discrimination includes Israel's denial of Palestinian refugees from their right of return and right to their lost properties . Israel has also drawn international condemnation for violating the human rights of the Palestinians . The international community, with exceptions including the United States and Israel that prefer bilateral negotiations, has largely been in consensus since the 1980s regarding a settlement of the conflict on the basis of a two-state solution along the 1967 borders and a just resolution for Palestinian refugees. In recent years, public support for a two-state solution has decreased, with Israeli policy reflecting an interest in maintaining the occupation, rather than seeking a permanent resolution to the conflict. In 2007, Israel tightened its blockade of the Gaza Strip and made official its policy of isolating it from the West Bank. Since then, Israel has framed its relationship with Gaza in terms of the laws of war , rather than in terms of its status as an occupying power . In a July 2024 advisory opinion , the International Court of Justice (ICJ) determined that Israel continues to illegally occupy the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Since 2006, Israel has fought several wars with the ruling party in the Gaza Strip, Hamas . Attacks by Hamas-led armed groups in October 2023 in Israel, which resulted in nearly 1,200 deaths, were followed by another war , which has caused widespread destruction, loss of life, mass population displacement , a humanitarian crisis , and a famine in the Gaza Strip. Israel's actions in Gaza during this war have been described by international law experts, genocide scholars and human rights organizations as a genocide . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Robinson, Kali (17 January 2024). \"Who Governs the Palestinians?\" . Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 18 January 2024 . Retrieved 30 July 2024 . ^ \"Occupied Palestinian Territory: Overview Map | December 2011\" . United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . 25 January 2012. Archived from the original on 11 November 2023 . Retrieved 11 November 2023 . ^ Morris 2004 , pp. 602–604 ^ Brown, Jeremy (2003). Six Days: How the 1967 War Shaped the Middle East . Simon & Schuster , 2012. ISBN 978-1-4711-1475-5 . UNRWA put the figure at 413 000 ^ Dumper, Michael (1997). The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967 . Columbia University Press . p. 67. ISBN 9780585388717 . ^ Garfinkle, Adam M. (2000). Politics and Society in Modern Israel: Myths and Realities . M. E. Sharpe . p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7656-0514-6 . ^ Laurens, Henry (2005). La question de Palestine [ The Question of Palestine ] (in French). Fayard . p. 194. ISBN 9789953455211 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . Caplan, Neil (2019). The Israel-Palestine Conflict . Wiley . p. 114. ISBN 9781119524014 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . Loewenstein, Antony (2023). The Palestine Laboratory . Verso . p. 12. ISBN 9781839762109 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . Mattar, Philip (2005). Encyclopedia of the Palestinians . Facts On File, Incorporated . p. 329. ISBN 9780816069866 . Retrieved 4 October 2024 . ^ Uri Ben-Eliezer, War over Peace: One Hundred Years of Israel's Militaristic Nationalism , University of California Press (2019) ^ Cite error: The named reference Race was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kober, Avi (2005). \"From Blitzkrieg To Attrition: Israel's Attrition Strategy and Staying Power\". Small Wars & Insurgencies . 16 (2): 216– 240. doi : 10.1080/09592310500080005 . ^ Nasrallah, Nami (2013). \"The First and Second Palestinian intifadas \" . In Newman, David; Peters, Joel (eds.). Routledge Handbook on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict . Routledge . pp. 56– 68. ISBN 978-0-415-77862-6 . ^ \"Fatalities since the outbreak of the second intifada and until operation \"Cast Lead\" \" . B'Tselem . Archived from the original on 1 July 2010. ^ \"Palestinians killed by Israeli security forces in the Gaza Strip, before Operation \"Cast Lead\" \" . B'Tselem . Archived from the original on 10 March 2013 . Retrieved 18 February 2024 . ^ Lappin, Yaakov (2009). \"IDF releases Cast Lead casualty numbers\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 26 March 2013 . Retrieved 5 January 2024 . ^ \"Confirmed figures reveal the true extent of the destruction inflicted upon the Gaza Strip; Israel's offensive resulted in 1,417 dead, including 926 civilians, 255 police officers, and 236 fighters\" . Palestinian Centre for Human Rights . 12 March 2009. Archived from the original on 12 June 2009 . Retrieved 5 January 2024 . ^ \"Report of the detailed findings of the independent commission of inquiry established pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution S-21/1\" . UN Human Rights Office . Human Rights Council. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017 . Retrieved 16 May 2024 . ^ \"2021 was the deadliest year since 2014, Israel killed 319 Palestinians in oPt 5-year record in house demolitions: 895 Palestinians lost their homes\" . B'Tselem . 4 January 2022. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022 . Retrieved 4 January 2022 . ^ \"Gaza death toll rises to 73,326 amid ongoing Israeli attacks\" . Ammon News . 26 July 2026. ^ \"A father in Gaza searches for his family's bones in the rubble of their home\" . Associated Press . 11 February 2026. ^ \"WHO Health Cluster Dashboard – West Bank and Gaza\" . World Health Organization – Eastern Mediterranean Region (Occupied Palestinian Territory) . World Health Organization. 21 February 2026 . Retrieved 22 February 2026 – via linked as 'WHO Health Cluster Dashboard – West and Gaza'. \"WHO OPT Dashboards\" . ^ \"IDF denies report claiming that its own database found that vast majority of Gaza dead were civilians\" . The Times of Israel . 21 August 2025 . Retrieved 12 February 2026 . In January, the military said 20,000 terror operatives had been killed, and yesterday it updated that number to over 22,000. In May, IDF officials said that the combatant-to-civilian deaths ratio has remained relatively the same throughout the war, with two to three civilians killed for every dead Hamas terror operative. ^ \"Swords of Iron: Civilian Casualties\" . gov.il . 3 December 2025 . Retrieved 26 January 2026 . ^ \"1,152 security personnel killed, 885 children bereaved: Two years on from Oct. 7, Defense Ministry data shows the toll of war\" . Times of Israel . 6 October 2025. ^ Bisset, Victoria; Ledur, Júlia; Shapiro, Leslie (5 March 2025). \"Monitoring the status of hostages still in Gaza after Hamas's attack\" . The Washington Post . ^ \"IDF soldier killed in friendly fire incident in southern Gaza\" . Ynet . 26 February 2026. ^ Tétrault-Farber, Gabrielle (6 December 2023). \"UN rights chief warns of heightened risk of 'atrocity crimes' in Gaza\" . Reuters . Retrieved 3 January 2024 . ^ Lev, Gid'on (27 February 2024). \"The Tragedy of Israel's 135,000 Displaced Citizens\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 8 October 2024 . Retrieved 18 July 2024 . ^ Garry, S.; Checchi, F. (2020), \"Armed conflict and public health: Into the 21st century\", Journal of Public Health , 42 (3): e287– e298, doi : 10.1093/pubmed/fdz095 , PMID 31822891 ^ Bloxham 2025 , pp. 23–24: \"A study of traumatic injury deaths in Gaza in The Lancet using multiple data sources and capture-recapture analysis suggested that the MoH's methods, far from producing an exaggerated number, actually under-estimated the death toll by around 41 percent. ... When considering the total 'excess mortality,' we need to add the Palestinians who have died because of the blockade in combination with the IDF's destruction of health and sanitation and food infrastructure. As public health experts noted, in many wars, 'most deaths' are 'due to the indirect [sic] impacts of war: malnutrition, communicable disease, exacerbations of noncommunicable disease, [and] maternal and infant disorders.'117 'Indirect' would be the wrong word for this conflict given the nature of Israeli policies, including the systematic obstruction of supplies into Gaza.\" ^ Khatib, Rasha; McKee, Martin; Yusuf, Salim (2024). \"Counting the dead in Gaza: difficult but essential\" . The Lancet . 404 (10449). Elsevier BV: 237– 238. doi : 10.1016/s0140-6736(24)01169-3 . ISSN 0140-6736 . PMID 38976995 . In recent conflicts, such indirect deaths range from three to 15 times the number of direct deaths. Applying a conservative estimate of four indirect deaths per one direct death to the 37,396 deaths reported, it is not implausible to estimate that up to 186,000 or even more deaths could be attributable to the current conflict in Gaza. Using the 2022 Gaza Strip population estimate of 2,375,259, this would translate to 7.9% of the total population in the Gaza Strip. ^ Sridhar, Devi (5 September 2024). \"Scientists are closing in on the true, horrifying scale of death and disease in Gaza\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 13 September 2024 . ^ Waxman, Dov (2019). The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: What Everyone Needs to Know . New York: Oxford University Press . p. 2. ISBN 978-0190625337 . ^ Gelvin, James L. (2021). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: A History (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . p. 6. ISBN 9781108771634 . ^ \"A History of Conflict: Introduction\" . A History of Conflict . BBC News . Archived from the original on 20 April 2011 . Retrieved 17 December 2008 . ^ \"Canadian Policy on Key Issues in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict\" . Government of Canada . Archived from the original on 18 February 2018 . Retrieved 13 March 2010 . ^ \"Movement and Access Restrictions in the West Bank: Uncertainty and Inefficiency in the Palestinian Economy\" (PDF) . World Bank . 9 May 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2010 . Retrieved 29 March 2010 . Currently, freedom of movement and access for Palestinians within the West Bank is the exception rather than the norm contrary to the commitments undertaken in a number of Agreements between GOI and the PA. In particular, both the Oslo Accords and the Road Map were based on the principle that normal Palestinian economic and social life would be unimpeded by restrictions ^ Khalidi 2020 , pp. 7–8. ^ Shafir 1996 , p. xiii: \"The goal of Zionism, however, was to successfully colonize Palestine while at the same time justifying the creation of a homogeneous Jewish settlement through an intensifying denial of Palestinian national aspirations.\" ^ Neal, Lorena S. (May 1995). \"Honors Projects\". The Roots of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: 1882–1914 . Illinois Wesleyan University . Archived from the original on 23 August 2017 . Retrieved 22 August 2017 . ^ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (26 October 2020). \"Balfour Declaration | History & Impact\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015 . Retrieved 28 May 2021 . ^ Khalidi 2024 , p. 108: \"The repression of the revolt had an impact not only on the populace, but also on the Palestinians' ability to fight thereafter, and on the already fractured capabilities of their national leadership. A high proportion of the Arab casualties included the most experienced military cadres and enterprising fighters.6 By the end of the revolt, most of the top Arab political leaders and thousands of other cadres, militants, and fighters were imprisoned, interned by the British in the Seychelles, in exile, or dead. The British also confiscated large quantities of arms and ammunition from the Arabs during the revolt, and continued to do so during later years. By the end of the revolt, existing political divisions within the Palestinian polity had become envenomed, leading to profound rifts between the majority supporting the revolt and a minority that had become alienated from the leadership: the consequence was assassinations, infighting, and further weakening of the Palestinian position. The impact of the revolt on the Palestinian economy was also severe, although some of that damage was self-inflicted, as a boycott of British and Jewish goods and of the mandatory government during the strike and the revolt simply opened up opportunities for the already larger Jewish-controlled sector of the economy of Palestine to expand further.\" ^ Khalidi 2020 , p. 44 ^ Morris, Benny (2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War . New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 63– 66. ISBN 9780300126969 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: date and year ( link ) ^ Pappé, Ilan (2007). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine . Oneworld Publications . ISBN 978-1-78074-056-0 . ^ Morris 1999 ^ Human Rights Watch, \"A Threshold Crossed: Israeli Authorities and the Crimes of Apartheid and Persecution,\" 27 April 2021, hrw.org; Amnesty International, \"Israel's Apartheid Against Palestinians: Cruel System of Domination and Crime Against Humanity,\" 1 February 2022, amnesty.org; Michael Sfard, The Israeli Occupation of the West Bank and the Crime of Apartheid: Legal Opinion (Yesh Din, June 2022), yesh-din.org; B'Tselem, \"A Regime of Jewish Supremacy from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea: This Is Apartheid,\" position paper, 12 January 2021, btselem.org ^ Totten, S. (2017). Last Lectures on the Prevention and Intervention of Genocide . Routledge Studies in Genocide and Crimes against Humanity. Taylor & Francis . p. 64. ISBN 978-1-315-40976-4 . Archived from the original on 31 March 2023 . Retrieved 31 March 2023 . ^ McHardy, Martha. \"All Nations That Voted Against Two-State Israeli-Palestinian Solution\" . Newsweek . Retrieved 7 April 2026 . ^ Feuer, Hannah (22 September 2025). \"142 countries have voted for a path to Israeli-Palestinian peace, why are these 10 countries opposed?\" . The Forward . Retrieved 7 April 2026 . ^ Dannenbaum, Tom; Dill, Janina (2024). \"International Law in Gaza: Belligerent Intent and Provisional Measures\" . American Journal of International Law . 118 (4): 659– 683. doi : 10.1017/ajil.2024.53 . ^ \"GAZA STRIP: Famine confirmed in Gaza Governorate, projected to expand | 1 July - 30 September 2025\" (PDF) . Integrated Food Security Phase Classification . 22 August 2025. ^ Speri, Alice (20 December 2024). \"Defining genocide: how a rift over Gaza sparked a crisis among scholars\" . Guardian . Retrieved 23 December 2024 . Narea, Nicole (25 October 2024). \"Is Israel committing genocide? Reexamining the question, a year later\" . Vox . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . ^ Legal Scholars: Abrahams, Jessica (26 November 2024). \" 'A world with no holocausts': The Shoah survivor backing ICC prosecutions\" . Prospect Magazine . Mohyeldin, Ayman; Hamdan, Basel (10 December 2024). \"Why Amnesty International and other experts say Israel is committing genocide in Gaza\" . MSNBC . Archived from the original on 3 July 2025. Aryeh Neier, founder of Human Rights Watch and one of the leading human rights experts in the world — also a Jewish refugee who fled Nazi Germany — told me back in June that, in his view, what Israel was doing in Gaza is a genocide. \"International Expert Statement on Israeli State Crime\" . International State Crime Initiative. 9 January 2024. Archived from the original on 1 June 2024. Kring, Franziska; Kolter, Max. \"Is Israel Committing Genocide in the Gaza Strip?\" . Legal Tribune Online . Sultany, Nimer (2026). \"A Threshold Crossed: On Genocidal Intent and the Duty to Prevent Genocide in Palestine\" . Journal of Genocide Research : 1– 26. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2024.2351261 . Governments, Political Figures, and Policy Organizations: Albanese, Francesca (25 March 2024). Anatomy of a Genocide: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, Francesca Albanese (PDF) (Report). United Nations Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories . p. 1. By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met Amnesty International (2024). 'You Feel Like You Are Subhuman': Israel's Genocide Against Palestinians In Gaza (PDF) (Report). p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2024. This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide. B'Tselem (July 2025). Our Genocide (PDF) (Report). p. 86. The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid — all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip. \"EMERGENCY LEGAL BRIEFING PAPER: Israel's Unfolding Crime of Genocide of the Palestinian People & U.S. Failure to Prevent and Complicity in Genocide\" (PDF) . Center for Constitutional Rights. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2023. Conley, Julia (3 January 2024). \"100+ Global Rights Groups Urge Support for South Africa's Genocide Case Against Israel at ICJ\" . Common Dreams. Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. \"Statement on Why We Call the Israeli Attack on Gaza Genocide\" . Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention. Archived from the original on 14 February 2024. \"Gaza genocide\" . Medecins Sans Frontieres . Archived from the original on 10 July 2025. \"Israel has committed genocide in the Gaza Strip, UN Commission finds\" . United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner . 16 September 2025. Holocaust and Genocide Studies Scholars: Bartov, Omer (15 July 2025). \"I'm a Genocide Scholar. I Know It When I See It\" . The New York Times . Bloxham, Donald (2026). \"The 7 October Atrocities and the Annihilation of Gaza: Causes and Responsibilities\" . Journal of Genocide Studies . 28 (2): 294– 319. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2025.2483546 . Komnenic, Ana (2 December 2023). \"Experts, advocates deeply divided on question of 'genocide' in Gaza\" . CBC News . Adam Jones, a political science professor at the University of British Columbia Okanagan and author of a textbook in genocide studies, says use of the term has erupted since Oct. 7, but that the extremes of both parties to the conflict have shown \"genocidal strands and ideologies\" going back decades. I believe that the events of Oct. 7 qualify as a genocidal massacre of Israelis. I also think that the Israeli response, and indeed long standing Israeli policy towards the Gazan population, evinces elements of genocidal thinking and increasingly practice Levene, Mark (2026). \"Gaza 2023: Words Matter, Lives Matter More\" . Journal of Genocide Research . 28 (1): 25– 31. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2024.2301866 . Üngör, Uğur Ümit (2026). \"Screaming, Silence, and Mass Violence in Israel/Palestine\" . Journal of Genocide Research . 28 (1): 38– 46. doi : 10.1080/14623528.2024.2309709 . Tharoor, Ishaan (30 July 2025). \"Leading genocide scholars see a genocide happening in Gaza\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . van Laarhoven, Kasper; Peek, Eva; Walters, Derk (14 May 2025). \"Zeven gerenommeerde wetenschappers vrijwel eensgezind: Israël pleegt in Gaza genocide\" . NRC (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 15 May 2025 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . Other Scholars: Waxman, Dov (1 August 2025). \"Why I changed my mind on the genocide charge against Israel\" . Medium."
  },
  {
   "title": "Criticism of Israel",
   "pageid": 30074296,
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   "lead_before": "For opposition to Zionism, see Anti-Zionism . For debate over the legitimacy of the State of Israel itself, see Legitimacy of the State of Israel . Protesters in Dar es Salaam opposing the Gaza War in 2009 Israel has faced international criticism since its establishment in 1948 relating to a variety of issues, many of which are centered around human rights violations related to the Nakba and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . Israel has been criticized for issues surrounding its establishment when most of Mandatory Palestine 's Arab population fled or were expelled in 1948, the conduct of its armed forces in the Arab–Israeli conflict , establishment and expansion of illegal Israeli settlements in the Palestinian territories , its treatment of Palestinians , and the blockade of the Gaza Strip , with its impact on the economy of the Palestinian territories , the country's nuclear weapons program , and its targeted killings program . Other criticized long-standing issues include: the refusal to allow post-war Palestinian refugees to return to their homes, and the prolonged occupation of territories gained in war and the construction of settlements therein. Israel's status as a representative democracy has also been questioned because Israeli residents of the occupied territories are allowed to vote in Israel's elections while Palestinian residents are not, leading to accusations of apartheid . Criticisms of Israeli policies come from several groups: primarily from activists , within Israel and worldwide, the United Nations and other non-governmental organizations including European churches, and mass media. Media bias is often claimed by both critics and defenders of Israel. Counter-criticisms include the assertion that some critics and their criticisms are aimed at delegitimizing Israel's right to exist which has led some to debate over the point at which criticism of Israel crosses the line into antisemitism . The term \" new antisemitism \" refers to criticisms deemed to have crossed this threshold. ^ Watt, Nicholas; Sherwood, Harriet (27 July 2010). \"David Cameron: Israeli blockade has turned Gaza Strip into a 'prison camp' \" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019 . Retrieved 11 December 2016 . ^ \"Fact Sheet: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal\" . Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. 31 March 2020. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024 . Retrieved 9 August 2020 . ^ Kendall, J. Nicholas (2001–2002). \"Israeli Counter-Terrorism: Targeted Killings under International Law\" . North Carolina Law Review . 80 : 1069. Archived from the original on 15 October 2023 . Retrieved 9 August 2020 . ^ \"A look at Israel's targeted killings of militant leaders\" . AP News . 12 November 2019. Archived from the original on 21 November 2023 . Retrieved 9 August 2020 . ^ BARAT, FRANK (April 2011). \"Why Israel is Not a Democracy\" . Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . Ilan Pappé : No, Israel is definitely not a democracy. A country that occupies another people for more than 40 years and disallow them the most elementary civic and human rights cannot be a democracy. A country that pursues a discriminatory policy against a fifth of its Palestinian citizens inside the 67 borders cannot be a democracy. In fact Israel is, what we use to call in political science a Herrenvolk democracy , its democracy only for the masters. The fact that you allow people to participate in the formal side of democracy, namely to vote or to be elected, is useless and meaningless if you don't give them any share in the common good or in the common resources of the State, or if you discriminate against them despite the fact that you allow them to participate in the elections. On almost every level from official legislation through governmental practices, and social and cultural attitudes, Israel is only a democracy for one group, one ethnic group, that given the space that Israel now controls, is not even a majority group anymore, so I think that you'll find it very hard to use any known definition of democracy which will be applicable for the Israeli case. ^ Gorenberg, Gershom (4 December 2009). \"Is Israel a Democracy?\" . The American Prospect . Archived from the original on 26 August 2019 . Retrieved 20 September 2014 . Whether it ends the occupation and discrimination against Arab citizens within its borders will alter our perception of whether the nation began as an imperfect democracy or a false one. Today's political battles, strangely enough, will determine not only its future but also its past. ^ \"Israeli-Occupied Territories\" . freedomhouse.org/ . Freedom House. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ \"Want to Delegitimize Israel? Be Careful Who You Mess With\" . Archived from the original on 24 November 2010 – via Haaretz. ^ Bard, Mitchell (2008). Will Israel Survive . p. 1. Israel might be the only country in the world whose right to exist is debated and whose future is questioned. Can you imagine anyone asking whether the United States will survive or whether it should exist? Or anyone saying \"no\" if asked? ^ \"Eroding Israel's Legitimacy in the International Arena – Reut Institute\" . reut-institute.org . Archived from the original on 25 March 2019 . Retrieved 18 May 2021 .",
   "lead_after": "For opposition to Zionism, see Anti-Zionism . For debate over the legitimacy of the State of Israel itself, see Legitimacy of the State of Israel . Protesters in Dar es Salaam opposing the Gaza War in 2009 Israel has faced international criticism since its establishment in 1948 relating to a variety of issues, many of which are centered around human rights violations related to the Nakba and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . Israel has been criticized for issues surrounding its establishment when most of Mandatory Palestine 's Arab population fled or were expelled in 1948, the conduct of its armed forces in the Arab–Israeli conflict , establishment and expansion of illegal Israeli settlements in the Palestinian territories , its treatment of Palestinians , and the blockade of the Gaza Strip , with its impact on the economy of the Palestinian territories , the country's nuclear weapons program , and its targeted killings program . Other criticized long-standing issues include: the refusal to allow post-war Palestinian refugees to return to their homes, and the prolonged occupation of territories gained in war and the construction of settlements therein. Israel's status as a representative democracy has also been questioned because Israeli residents of the occupied territories are allowed to vote in Israel's elections while Palestinian residents are not, leading to accusations of apartheid . Criticisms of Israeli policies come from several groups: primarily from activists , within Israel and worldwide, the United Nations and other non-governmental organizations including European churches, and mass media. Media bias is often claimed by both critics and defenders of Israel. Counter-criticisms include the assertion that some critics and their criticisms are aimed at delegitimizing Israel's right to exist which has led some to debate over the point at which criticism of Israel crosses the line into antisemitism . The term \" new antisemitism \" refers to criticisms deemed to have crossed this threshold. ^ Watt, Nicholas; Sherwood, Harriet (27 July 2010). \"David Cameron: Israeli blockade has turned Gaza Strip into a 'prison camp' \" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019 . Retrieved 11 December 2016 . ^ \"Fact Sheet: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal\" . Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. 31 March 2020. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024 . Retrieved 9 August 2020 . ^ Kendall, J. Nicholas (2001–2002). \"Israeli Counter-Terrorism: Targeted Killings under International Law\" . North Carolina Law Review . 80 : 1069. Archived from the original on 15 October 2023 . Retrieved 9 August 2020 . ^ \"A look at Israel's targeted killings of militant leaders\" . AP News . 12 November 2019. Archived from the original on 21 November 2023 . Retrieved 9 August 2020 . ^ BARAT, FRANK (April 2011). \"Why Israel is Not a Democracy\" . Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . Ilan Pappé : No, Israel is definitely not a democracy. A country that occupies another people for more than 40 years and disallow them the most elementary civic and human rights cannot be a democracy. A country that pursues a discriminatory policy against a fifth of its Palestinian citizens inside the 67 borders cannot be a democracy. In fact Israel is, what we use to call in political science a Herrenvolk democracy , its democracy only for the masters. The fact that you allow people to participate in the formal side of democracy, namely to vote or to be elected, is useless and meaningless if you don't give them any share in the common good or in the common resources of the State, or if you discriminate against them despite the fact that you allow them to participate in the elections. On almost every level from official legislation through governmental practices, and social and cultural attitudes, Israel is only a democracy for one group, one ethnic group, that given the space that Israel now controls, is not even a majority group anymore, so I think that you'll find it very hard to use any known definition of democracy which will be applicable for the Israeli case. ^ Gorenberg, Gershom (4 December 2009). \"Is Israel a Democracy?\" . The American Prospect . Archived from the original on 26 August 2019 . Retrieved 20 September 2014 . Whether it ends the occupation and discrimination against Arab citizens within its borders will alter our perception of whether the nation began as an imperfect democracy or a false one. Today's political battles, strangely enough, will determine not only its future but also its past. ^ \"Israeli-Occupied Territories\" . freedomhouse.org/ . Freedom House. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018 . Retrieved 15 September 2014 . ^ \"Want to Delegitimize Israel? Be Careful Who You Mess With\" . Archived from the original on 24 November 2010 – via Haaretz. ^ Bard, Mitchell (2008). Will Israel Survive . p. 1. Israel might be the only country in the world whose right to exist is debated and whose future is questioned. Can you imagine anyone asking whether the United States will survive or whether it should exist? Or anyone saying \"no\" if asked? ^ \"Eroding Israel's Legitimacy in the International Arena – Reut Institute\" . reut-institute.org . Archived from the original on 25 March 2019 . Retrieved 18 May 2021 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Israeli settlement",
   "pageid": 15123,
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   "lead_before": "Israeli communities built on land occupied in the 1967 Six-Day War For conceptions of Zionist colonization in Palestine, see Zionism as settler colonialism . For other uses, see Israeli settlement (disambiguation) . West Bank settlements (2025) East Jerusalem settlements (2006) Golan Heights settlements (1992) Gaza Strip settlements (1993), dismantled since the 2005 disengagement Israeli settlements , also called Israeli colonies , are the civilian communities built by Israel throughout the Israeli-occupied territories . They are populated by Israeli citizens, almost exclusively of Jewish identity or ethnicity , and have been constructed on lands that Israel has militarily occupied since the Six-Day War in 1967. The international community considers Israeli settlements to be illegal under international law , but Israel disputes this. In 2024, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) found in an advisory opinion that Israel's occupation was illegal and ruled that Israel had \"an obligation to cease immediately all new settlement activities and to evacuate all settlers\" from the occupied territories. The population of the settlements increased rapidly over the last 35 years . The expansion of settlements often involves the confiscation of Palestinian land and resources, leading to displacement of Palestinian communities and creating a source of tension and conflict. Settlements are often protected by the Israeli military and are frequently flashpoints for violence against Palestinians. Furthermore, the presence of settlements and Jewish-only bypass roads creates a fragmented Palestinian territory , seriously hindering economic development and freedom of movement for Palestinians . As of April 2025, Israeli settlements exist in the West Bank (including East Jerusalem ), which is claimed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the sovereign territory of the State of Palestine , and in the Golan Heights , which is internationally recognized as a part of the sovereign territory of Syria . Through the Jerusalem Law and the Golan Heights Law , Israel effectively annexed both territories, though the international community has rejected any change to their status as occupied territory . Although Israel's West Bank settlements have been built on territory administered under military rule rather than civil law, Israeli civil law is \"pipelined\" into the settlements , such that Israeli citizens living there are treated similarly to those living in Israel. Many consider it to be a major obstacle to the Israeli–Palestinian peace process . In Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (2004), the ICJ found that Israel's settlements and the then-nascent Israeli West Bank barrier were both in violation of international law; part of the latter has been constructed within the West Bank, as opposed to being entirely on Israel's side of the Green Line . As of January 2023, there are 144 Israeli settlements in the West Bank, including 12 in East Jerusalem; the Israeli government administers the West Bank as the Judea and Samaria Area , which does not include East Jerusalem. In addition to the settlements, the West Bank is also hosting at least 196 Israeli outposts , which are settlements that have not been authorized by the Israeli government. In total, over 450,000 Israeli settlers reside in the West Bank, excluding East Jerusalem, with an additional 220,000 Israeli settlers residing in East Jerusalem. Additionally, over 25,000 Israeli settlers live in Syria's Golan Heights. Between 1967 and 1982, there were 18 settlements established in the Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula of Egypt , though these were dismantled by Israel after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty of 1979. Additionally, as part of the Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2005, Israel dismantled all 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip and four settlements in the West Bank. Per the Fourth Geneva Convention , the transfer by an occupying power of its civilian population into the territory it is occupying constitutes a war crime , although Israel disputes that this statute applies to the West Bank. On 20 December 2019, the International Criminal Court announced the opening of an investigation of war crimes in the Palestinian territories . The presence and ongoing expansion of existing settlements by Israel and the construction of outposts is frequently criticized as an obstacle to peace by the PLO, and by a number of third parties, such as the Organization of Islamic Cooperation , the United Nations (UN), Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and the European Union . The UN has repeatedly upheld the view that Israel's construction of settlements in the occupied territories constitutes a violation of the Fourth Geneva Convention. For decades, the United States also designated Israeli settlements as illegal, but the first Trump administration reversed this long-standing policy in November 2019, declaring that \"the establishment of Israeli civilian settlements in the West Bank is not per se inconsistent with international law\"; this new policy, in turn, was reversed to the original by the Biden administration in February 2024, once again classifying Israeli settlement expansion as \"inconsistent with international law\" and matching the official positions of the other three members of the Middle East Quartet . ^ Matar, Ibrahim (1981). \"Israeli Settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip\". Journal of Palestine Studies . 11 (1): 93– 110. doi : 10.2307/2536048 . ISSN 0377-919X . JSTOR 2536048 . The pattern and process of land seizure for the purpose of constructing these Israeli colonies... ^ Isaac, Jad; Hilal, Jane (2011). \"Palestinian landscape and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict\". International Journal of Environmental Studies . 68 (4): 413– 429. Bibcode : 2011IJEnS..68..413I . doi : 10.1080/00207233.2011.582700 . ISSN 0020-7233 . S2CID 96404520 . The continuous construction of Israeli colonies and bypass roads all over the Palestinian land... ^ Thawaba, Salem (2019). \"Building and planning regulations under Israeli colonial power: a critical study from Palestine\". Planning Perspectives . 34 (1): 133– 146. Bibcode : 2019PlPer..34..133T . doi : 10.1080/02665433.2018.1543611 . ISSN 0266-5433 . S2CID 149769054 . Moreover in 1995 38,500 housing units were built in Jewish settlements (colonies)... ^ Abu-Laban, Yasmine; Bakan, Abigail B. (2019). Israel, Palestine and the Politics of Race: Exploring Identity and Power in a Global Context . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-83860-879-8 . The ongoing occupation has been heavily shaped by the issues of land confiscation and the building of Israeli Jewish settlements (or what Palestinians often refer to less euphemistically as \"colonies\"). ^ Haklai, O.; Loizides, N. (2015). Settlers in Contested Lands: Territorial Disputes and Ethnic Conflicts . Stanford University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8047-9650-7 . Retrieved 14 December 2018 . the Israel settlers reside almost solely in exclusively Jewish communities (one exception is a small enclave within the city of Hebron). ^ Dumper, M. (2014). Jerusalem Unbound: Geography, History, and the Future of the Holy City . Columbia University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-231-53735-3 . Retrieved 14 December 2018 . This is despite huge efforts by successive governments to fragment and encircle Palestinian residential areas with exclusively Jewish zones of residence – the settlements. ^ \"Leave or let live? Arabs move in to Jewish settlements\" . Reuters . 7 December 2014. Archived from the original on 30 July 2015 . Retrieved 21 February 2023 – via www.reuters.com. ^ Rivlin, P. (2010). The Israeli Economy from the Foundation of the State through the 21st Century . Cambridge University Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-139-49396-3 . Retrieved 14 December 2018 . In the June 1967 Six Day War, Israel occupied the Golan Heights, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Sinai Peninsula. Soon after, it began to build the first settlements for Jews in those areas. ^ Roberts, Adam (1990). \"Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967\" (PDF) . The American Journal of International Law . 84 (1): 85– 86. doi : 10.2307/2203016 . ISSN 0002-9300 . JSTOR 2203016 . S2CID 145514740 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2020. The international community has taken a critical view of both deportations and settlements as being contrary to international law. General Assembly resolutions have condemned the deportations since 1969, and have done so by overwhelming majorities in recent years. Likewise, they have consistently deplored the establishment of settlements, and have done so by overwhelming majorities throughout the period (since the end of 1976) of the rapid expansion in their numbers. The Security Council has also been critical of deportations and settlements; and other bodies have viewed them as an obstacle to peace, and illegal under international law... Although East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have been brought directly under Israeli law, by acts that amount to annexation, both of these areas continue to be viewed by the international community as occupied, and their status as regards the applicability of international rules is in most respects identical to that of the West Bank and Gaza. ^ Pertile, Marco (2005). \" 'Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory': A Missed Opportunity for International Humanitarian Law?\". In Conforti, Benedetto; Bravo, Luigi (eds.). The Italian Yearbook of International Law . Vol. 14. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 141. ISBN 978-90-04-15027-0 . the establishment of the Israeli settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territory has been considered illegal by the international community and by the majority of legal scholars. ^ Barak-Erez, Daphne (2006). \"Israel: The security barrier—between international law, constitutional law, and domestic judicial review\" . International Journal of Constitutional Law . 4 (3): 548. doi : 10.1093/icon/mol021 . The real controversy hovering over all the litigation on the security barrier concerns the fate of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories. Since 1967, Israel has allowed and even encouraged its citizens to live in the new settlements established in the territories, motivated by religious and national sentiments attached to the history of the Jewish nation in the land of Israel. This policy has also been justified in terms of security interests, taking into consideration the dangerous geographic circumstances of Israel before 1967 (where Israeli areas on the Mediterranean coast were potentially threatened by Jordanian control of the West Bank ridge). The international community, for its part, has viewed this policy as patently illegal, based on the provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention that prohibit moving populations to or from territories under occupation. ^ Drew, Catriona (1997). \"Self-determination and population transfer\". In Bowen, Stephen (ed.). Human rights, self-determination and political change in the occupied Palestinian territories . International studies in human rights. Vol. 52. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 151– 152. ISBN 978-90-411-0502-8 . It can thus clearly be concluded that the transfer of Israeli settlers into the occupied territories violates not only the laws of belligerent occupation but the Palestinian right of self-determination under international law. The question remains, however, whether this is of any practical value. In other words, given the view of the international community that the Israeli settlements are illegal under the law if belligerent occupation, what purpose does it serve to establish that an additional breach of international law has occurred? ^ Cite error: The named reference ot was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Harel was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Stone, Julius (2004). Lacey, Ian (ed.). International Law and the Arab-Israel Conflict: Extracts from \"Israel and Palestine Assault on the Law of Nations\" by Professor Julius Stone (2nd ed.). Jirlac Publications. ISBN 978-0-975-10730-0 . ^ Byron, Christine (2013). War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-1-847-79275-4 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Hail was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Chapter 3: Israeli Settlements and International Law\" . Amnesty International . 30 January 2019. Archived from the original on 6 March 2024 . Retrieved 9 March 2024 . ^ Aji, Albert (26 March 2019). \"Trump acceptance of Israeli control of Golan sparks protests\" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 26 March 2019 . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ \"Trump's Golan move unites Gulf States and Iran in condemnation\" . France 24 . 26 March 2019. Archived from the original on 26 March 2019 . Retrieved 31 March 2019 . ^ Anthony Cordesman , Jennifer Moravitz, The Israeli–Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere , Greenwood Publishing Group, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2005 p. 432: 'Between 1993 and 1999, settlers established 42 \"unofficial\" settlements, only four of which were subsequently dismantled. More than a dozen new settlements were established between the 1998 Wye Accord [sic: it's the Wye River Memorandum , but Oslo Accords ] and the outbreak of war, although former Prime Minister Netanyahu supposedly promised Clinton that he would halt expansion.' ^ Zeev Maoz Defending the Holy Land: A Critical Analysis of Israel's Security & Foreign Policy , University of Michigan Press, 2006 p. 472: 'As can be seen from the table, in 1993 there were about 110,000 settlers in the occupied territories. In 2001 there were 195,000 (Note that the number of settlers increased by 18 percent during the Al Aqsa Intifada ). This was an increase of 73 percent' ^ Marwan Bishara , Palestine/Israel: Peace or Apartheid Zed Books, 2003 p. 133: 'The settlement expansion has continued unabated...and accelerated after the launch of the peace process.' p. 133. ^ Baylis Thomas, The Dark Side of Zionism: Israel's Quest for Security Through Dominance Lexington Books, 3011 p. 137: \"Six years after the agreement there were more Israeli settlements, less freedom of movement, and worse economic conditions.\" Settlement building and roads for Jewish settlers proceeded at a frenetic pace under Barak – the classic Zionist maneuver of creating of facts on the ground to preclude a Palestinian state.' p. 137. ^ Barahona, Ana (2013). Bearing Witness: Eight weeks in Palestine . London: Metete. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-908099-02-0 . ^ \"Summary of the Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004\" (PDF) . International Court of Justice. 9 July 2004. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2014 . Retrieved 9 November 2011 . ^ \"fco.gov.uk\" . Archived from the original on 30 August 2010. ^ Regarding international organizations and courts of law, see \"Israeli settlements under international law\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2014 . Retrieved 1 March 2014 . ; regarding the UN, see UN General Assembly resolution 39/146, 14 December 1984; UN Security Council Resolution 446, 22 March 1979; and International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, 9 July 2004, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, para 120; Regarding the European Union position, see The Syrian Golan Archived 3 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ \"Jerusalem\" . Peace Now . Archived from the original on 25 April 2023 . Retrieved 5 January 2023 . ^ \"Settlements above the Law: BBC Eye investigates extremist settlers in the West Bank and speaks to the Palestinian families who have been forcibly expelled from their homes\" . www.bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 12 November 2024 . The BBC independently verified the location of 196 outposts established in the occupied West Bank, almost half of them built in the past five years. Documents seen by BBC Eye reveal that some of the settlers, who have established these herding outposts, have been supported by two powerful organisations in Israel. One of these organisations describes itself as \"an arm of the Israeli state\". ^ \"Growth rate of settlements plummets to all-time low\" . The Jerusalem Post . 5 September 2021. ISSN 0792-822X . Archived from the original on 22 April 2023 . Retrieved 1 June 2022 . ^ \"Population\" . Peace Now . Archived from the original on 11 June 2022 . Retrieved 1 June 2022 . ^ \"Regional Statistics\" . Israel Central Bureau of Statistics . Retrieved 21 March 2026 . ^ * Gershom Gorenberg (2007). The Accidental Empire: Israel and the Birth of the Settlements, 1967–1977 . Macmillan. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-8050-8241-8 . So argued the government of Israel before the country's Supreme Court in the spring of 2005, defending its decision to dismantle all Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip and four in the northern West Bank. ^ Robert Cryer, Hakan Friman, Darryl Robinson, Elizabeth Wilmshurst, An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure, Cambridge University Press 2010 p.308 ^ Ghislain Poissonnier, Eric David, 'Israeli Settlements in the West Bank, a War Crime?,' Archived 3 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine Revue des droits de l'homme, 2020. ^ 'Status of Settlements Under International Law,' Archived 25 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International pp.8,29f. ^ Stone, Julius (2004). Lacey, Ian (ed.). International Law and the Arab-Israel Conflict: Extracts from \"Israel and Palestine Assault on the Law of Nations\" by Professor Julius Stone (2nd ed.). Jirlac Publications. ISBN 978-0-975-10730-0 . ^ Byron, Christine (2013). War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-1-847-79275-4 . ^ \"Palestinians condemn settlements plan\" . The Financial Times . 20 May 2011. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022 . Retrieved 27 March 2012 . ^ \"OIC Secretary General hails EU decision on Israeli settlements\" Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine . United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine – OIC Statement to UN. Accessed 14 March 2015. ^ \"Israeli settlement plan denounced\" . BBC. 8 November 2009. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019 . Retrieved 16 March 2010 . ^ \"Israeli settlements – DW – 07/21/2009\" . dw.com . Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 18 February 2023 . ^ \"Russia's stance on Israeli settlements in West Bank remains unchanged — ministry\" . TASS . Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 18 February 2023 . ^ \"Britain: Israeli settlements are 'illegal' and 'obstacle' to peace\" . Haaretz . 4 November 2009. Archived from the original on 15 January 2010 . Retrieved 16 March 2010 . ^ \"France condemns Israel over settlement building decision\" . Business Standard . 21 March 2014. Archived from the original on 9 July 2018 . Retrieved 5 April 2014 . ^ \"EU's Ashton SAYS Israeli settlement plans hurt peace moves\" . Reuters. 15 March 2010. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011 . Retrieved 16 March 2010 . ^ \"UN Security Council Resolution 465\" . Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. ^ * \"What next for Gaza and West Bank?\" . BBC. 30 August 2005. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . Retrieved 5 January 2010 . Most Israelis support the pullout, but some feel the government has given in to Palestinian militant groups, and worry that further withdrawals will follow. Palestinian critics point out that Gaza will remain under Israeli control, and that they are being denied a political say in the disengagement process. Yearbook of the United Nations 2005 . United Nations Publications. 2007. p. 514. ISBN 978-92-1-100967-5 . The Israeli Government was preparing to implement an unprecedented initiative: the disengagement of all Israeli civilians and forces from the Gaza Strip and the dismantling of four settlements in the northern West Bank. Yael Yishai (1987). Land Or Peace . Hoover Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8179-8523-3 . During 1982 Israel's government stuck to its territorial policy in word and deed. All the settlements in Sinai were evacuated in accordance with the Camp David Accords, but settlement activity in the other territories continued uninterrupted. A few days after the final withdrawal from Sinai had been completed, Begin announced that he would introduce a resolution barring future governments from dismantling settlements, even as a result of peace negotiations. ^ * Roberts, Adam (1990). \"Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967\". The American Journal of International Law . 84 (1). American Society of International Law: 85– 86. doi : 10.2307/2203016 . JSTOR 2203016 . S2CID 145514740 . The international community has taken a critical view of both deportations and settlements as being contrary to international law. General Assembly resolutions have condemned the deportations since 1969, and have done so by overwhelming majorities in recent years. Likewise, they have consistently deplored the establishment of settlements, and have done so by overwhelming majorities throughout the period (since the end of 1976) of the rapid expansion in their numbers. The Security Council has also been critical of deportations and settlements; and other bodies have viewed them as an obstacle to peace, and illegal under international law. Pertile, Marco (2005). \" 'Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory': A Missed Opportunity for International Humanitarian Law?\". In Conforti, Benedetto; Bravo, Luigi (eds.). The Italian Yearbook of International Law . Vol. 14. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 141. ISBN 978-90-04-15027-0 . the establishment of the Israeli settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territory has been considered illegal by the international community and by the majority of legal scholars. Barak-Erez, Daphne (2006). \"Israel: The security barrier—between international law, constitutional law, and domestic judicial review\" . International Journal of Constitutional Law . 4 (3). Oxford University Press: 548. doi : 10.1093/icon/mol021 . The real controversy hovering over all the litigation on the security barrier concerns the fate of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories. Since 1967, Israel has allowed and even encouraged its citizens to live in the new settlements established in the territories, motivated by religious and national sentiments attached to the history of the Jewish nation in the land of Israel. This policy has also been justified in terms of security interests, taking into consideration the dangerous geographic circumstances of Israel before 1967 (where Israeli areas on the Mediterranean coast were potentially threatened by Jordanian control of the West Bank ridge). The international community, for its part, has viewed this policy as patently illegal, based on the provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention that prohibit moving populations to or from territories under occupation. Drew, Catriona (1997). \"Self-determination and population transfer\". In Bowen, Stephen (ed.). Human rights, self-determination and political change in the occupied Palestinian Territories . International studies in human rights. Vol. 52. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 151– 152. ISBN 978-90-411-0502-8 . It can thus clearly be concluded that the transfer of Israeli settlers into the occupied territories violates not only the laws of belligerent occupation but the Palestinian right of self-determination under international law. The question remains, however, whether this is of any practical value. In other words, given the view of the international community that the Israeli settlements are illegal under the law if belligerent occupation... International Labour Organization (2005). \"The situation of workers of the occupied Arab territories\" (PDF) . p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 June 2016 . Retrieved 8 January 2012 . The international community considers Israeli settlements within the occupied territories illegal and in breach of, inter alia, United Nations Security Council resolution 465 of 1 March 1980 calling on Israel \"to dismantle the existing settlements and in particular to cease, on an urgent basis, the establishment, construction and planning of settlements in the Arab territories occupied since 1967, including Jerusalem\". Civilian and military presence as strategies of territorial control: The Arab-Israel conflict, David Newman, Political Geography Quarterly Volume 8, Issue 3, July 1989, Pages 215–227 ^ \"Jewish settlements no longer illegal – US\" . 18 November 2019. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019 . Retrieved 18 November 2019 . ^ \"Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announces reversal of Obama-era stance on Israeli settlements\" . www.cbsnews.com . 18 November 2019. Archived from the original on 18 November 2019 . Retrieved 18 November 2019 . ^ Hansler, Jennifer; Britzky, Haley; Judd, Donald (23 February 2024). \"Blinken says any expansion of West Bank settlements would be inconsistent with international law | CNN Politics\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 23 February 2024 . Retrieved 23 February 2024 . ^ \"Blinken reverses Trump-era policy on Israeli settlements in occupied West Bank\" . 23 February 2024. Archived from the original on 23 February 2024 . Retrieved 23 February 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Israeli communities built on land occupied in the 1967 Six-Day War For conceptions of Zionist colonization in Palestine, see Zionism as settler colonialism . For other uses, see Israeli settlement (disambiguation) . West Bank settlements (2025) East Jerusalem settlements (2006) Golan Heights settlements (1992) Gaza Strip settlements (1993), dismantled since the 2005 disengagement Israeli settlements , also called Israeli colonies , are the civilian communities built by Israel throughout the Israeli-occupied territories . They are populated by Israeli citizens, almost exclusively of Jewish identity or ethnicity , and have been constructed on lands that Israel has militarily occupied since the Six-Day War in 1967. The international community considers Israeli settlements to be illegal under international law , but Israel disputes this. In 2024, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) found in an advisory opinion that Israel's occupation was illegal and ruled that Israel had \"an obligation to cease immediately all new settlement activities and to evacuate all settlers\" from the occupied territories. The population of the settlements increased rapidly over the last 35 years . The expansion of settlements often involves the confiscation of Palestinian land and resources, leading to displacement of Palestinian communities and creating a source of tension and conflict. Settlements are often protected by the Israeli military and are frequently flashpoints for violence against Palestinians. Furthermore, the presence of settlements and Jewish-only bypass roads creates a fragmented Palestinian territory , seriously hindering economic development and freedom of movement for Palestinians . As of April 2025, Israeli settlements exist in the West Bank (including East Jerusalem ), which is claimed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the sovereign territory of the State of Palestine , and in the Golan Heights , which is internationally recognized as a part of the sovereign territory of Syria . Through the Jerusalem Law and the Golan Heights Law , Israel effectively annexed both territories, though the international community has rejected any change to their status as occupied territory . Although Israel's West Bank settlements have been built on territory administered under military rule rather than civil law, Israeli civil law is \"pipelined\" into the settlements , such that Israeli citizens living there are treated similarly to those living in Israel. Many consider it to be a major obstacle to the Israeli–Palestinian peace process . In Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (2004), the ICJ found that Israel's settlements and the then-nascent Israeli West Bank barrier were both in violation of international law; part of the latter has been constructed within the West Bank, as opposed to being entirely on Israel's side of the Green Line . As of January 2023, there are 144 Israeli settlements in the West Bank, including 12 in East Jerusalem; the Israeli government administers the West Bank as the Judea and Samaria Area , which does not include East Jerusalem. In addition to the settlements, the West Bank is also hosting at least 196 Israeli outposts , which are settlements that have not been authorized by the Israeli government. In total, over 450,000 Israeli settlers reside in the West Bank, excluding East Jerusalem, with an additional 220,000 Israeli settlers residing in East Jerusalem. Additionally, over 25,000 Israeli settlers live in Syria's Golan Heights. Between 1967 and 1982, there were 18 settlements established in the Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula of Egypt , though these were dismantled by Israel after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty of 1979. Additionally, as part of the Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2005, Israel dismantled all 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip and four settlements in the West Bank. Per the Fourth Geneva Convention , the transfer by an occupying power of its civilian population into the territory it is occupying constitutes a war crime , although Israel disputes that this statute applies to the West Bank. On 20 December 2019, the International Criminal Court announced the opening of an investigation of war crimes in the Palestinian territories . The presence and ongoing expansion of existing settlements by Israel and the construction of outposts is frequently criticized as an obstacle to peace by the PLO, and by a number of third parties, such as the Organization of Islamic Cooperation , the United Nations (UN), Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and the European Union . The UN has repeatedly upheld the view that Israel's construction of settlements in the occupied territories constitutes a violation of the Fourth Geneva Convention. For decades, the United States also designated Israeli settlements as illegal, but the first Trump administration reversed this long-standing policy in November 2019, declaring that \"the establishment of Israeli civilian settlements in the West Bank is not per se inconsistent with international law\"; this new policy, in turn, was reversed to the original by the Biden administration in February 2024, once again classifying Israeli settlement expansion as \"inconsistent with international law\" and matching the official positions of the other three members of the Middle East Quartet . ^ Matar, Ibrahim (1981). \"Israeli Settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip\". Journal of Palestine Studies . 11 (1): 93– 110. doi : 10.2307/2536048 . ISSN 0377-919X . JSTOR 2536048 . The pattern and process of land seizure for the purpose of constructing these Israeli colonies... ^ Isaac, Jad; Hilal, Jane (2011). \"Palestinian landscape and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict\". International Journal of Environmental Studies . 68 (4): 413– 429. Bibcode : 2011IJEnS..68..413I . doi : 10.1080/00207233.2011.582700 . ISSN 0020-7233 . S2CID 96404520 . The continuous construction of Israeli colonies and bypass roads all over the Palestinian land... ^ Thawaba, Salem (2019). \"Building and planning regulations under Israeli colonial power: a critical study from Palestine\". Planning Perspectives . 34 (1): 133– 146. Bibcode : 2019PlPer..34..133T . doi : 10.1080/02665433.2018.1543611 . ISSN 0266-5433 . S2CID 149769054 . Moreover in 1995 38,500 housing units were built in Jewish settlements (colonies)... ^ Abu-Laban, Yasmine; Bakan, Abigail B. (2019). Israel, Palestine and the Politics of Race: Exploring Identity and Power in a Global Context . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-83860-879-8 . The ongoing occupation has been heavily shaped by the issues of land confiscation and the building of Israeli Jewish settlements (or what Palestinians often refer to less euphemistically as \"colonies\"). ^ Haklai, O.; Loizides, N. (2015). Settlers in Contested Lands: Territorial Disputes and Ethnic Conflicts . Stanford University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8047-9650-7 . Retrieved 14 December 2018 . the Israel settlers reside almost solely in exclusively Jewish communities (one exception is a small enclave within the city of Hebron). ^ Dumper, M. (2014). Jerusalem Unbound: Geography, History, and the Future of the Holy City . Columbia University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-231-53735-3 . Retrieved 14 December 2018 . This is despite huge efforts by successive governments to fragment and encircle Palestinian residential areas with exclusively Jewish zones of residence – the settlements. ^ \"Leave or let live? Arabs move in to Jewish settlements\" . Reuters . 7 December 2014. Archived from the original on 30 July 2015 . Retrieved 21 February 2023 – via www.reuters.com. ^ Rivlin, P. (2010). The Israeli Economy from the Foundation of the State through the 21st Century . Cambridge University Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-139-49396-3 . Retrieved 14 December 2018 . In the June 1967 Six Day War, Israel occupied the Golan Heights, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Sinai Peninsula. Soon after, it began to build the first settlements for Jews in those areas. ^ Roberts, Adam (1990). \"Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967\" (PDF) . The American Journal of International Law . 84 (1): 85– 86. doi : 10.2307/2203016 . ISSN 0002-9300 . JSTOR 2203016 . S2CID 145514740 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2020. The international community has taken a critical view of both deportations and settlements as being contrary to international law. General Assembly resolutions have condemned the deportations since 1969, and have done so by overwhelming majorities in recent years. Likewise, they have consistently deplored the establishment of settlements, and have done so by overwhelming majorities throughout the period (since the end of 1976) of the rapid expansion in their numbers. The Security Council has also been critical of deportations and settlements; and other bodies have viewed them as an obstacle to peace, and illegal under international law... Although East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have been brought directly under Israeli law, by acts that amount to annexation, both of these areas continue to be viewed by the international community as occupied, and their status as regards the applicability of international rules is in most respects identical to that of the West Bank and Gaza. ^ Pertile, Marco (2005). \" 'Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory': A Missed Opportunity for International Humanitarian Law?\". In Conforti, Benedetto; Bravo, Luigi (eds.). The Italian Yearbook of International Law . Vol. 14. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 141. ISBN 978-90-04-15027-0 . the establishment of the Israeli settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territory has been considered illegal by the international community and by the majority of legal scholars. ^ Barak-Erez, Daphne (2006). \"Israel: The security barrier—between international law, constitutional law, and domestic judicial review\" . International Journal of Constitutional Law . 4 (3): 548. doi : 10.1093/icon/mol021 . The real controversy hovering over all the litigation on the security barrier concerns the fate of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories. Since 1967, Israel has allowed and even encouraged its citizens to live in the new settlements established in the territories, motivated by religious and national sentiments attached to the history of the Jewish nation in the land of Israel. This policy has also been justified in terms of security interests, taking into consideration the dangerous geographic circumstances of Israel before 1967 (where Israeli areas on the Mediterranean coast were potentially threatened by Jordanian control of the West Bank ridge). The international community, for its part, has viewed this policy as patently illegal, based on the provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention that prohibit moving populations to or from territories under occupation. ^ Drew, Catriona (1997). \"Self-determination and population transfer\". In Bowen, Stephen (ed.). Human rights, self-determination and political change in the occupied Palestinian territories . International studies in human rights. Vol. 52. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 151– 152. ISBN 978-90-411-0502-8 . It can thus clearly be concluded that the transfer of Israeli settlers into the occupied territories violates not only the laws of belligerent occupation but the Palestinian right of self-determination under international law. The question remains, however, whether this is of any practical value. In other words, given the view of the international community that the Israeli settlements are illegal under the law if belligerent occupation, what purpose does it serve to establish that an additional breach of international law has occurred? ^ Cite error: The named reference ot was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Harel was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Stone, Julius (2004). Lacey, Ian (ed.). International Law and the Arab-Israel Conflict: Extracts from \"Israel and Palestine Assault on the Law of Nations\" by Professor Julius Stone (2nd ed.). Jirlac Publications. ISBN 978-0-975-10730-0 . ^ Byron, Christine (2013). War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-1-847-79275-4 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Hail was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Chapter 3: Israeli Settlements and International Law\" . Amnesty International . 30 January 2019. Archived from the original on 6 March 2024 . Retrieved 9 March 2024 . ^ Aji, Albert (26 March 2019). \"Trump acceptance of Israeli control of Golan sparks protests\" . Associated Press . Archived from the original on 26 March 2019 . Retrieved 29 March 2019 . ^ \"Trump's Golan move unites Gulf States and Iran in condemnation\" . France 24 . 26 March 2019. Archived from the original on 26 March 2019 . Retrieved 31 March 2019 . ^ Anthony Cordesman , Jennifer Moravitz, The Israeli–Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere , Greenwood Publishing Group, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2005 p. 432: 'Between 1993 and 1999, settlers established 42 \"unofficial\" settlements, only four of which were subsequently dismantled. More than a dozen new settlements were established between the 1998 Wye Accord [sic: it's the Wye River Memorandum , but Oslo Accords ] and the outbreak of war, although former Prime Minister Netanyahu supposedly promised Clinton that he would halt expansion.' ^ Zeev Maoz Defending the Holy Land: A Critical Analysis of Israel's Security & Foreign Policy , University of Michigan Press, 2006 p. 472: 'As can be seen from the table, in 1993 there were about 110,000 settlers in the occupied territories. In 2001 there were 195,000 (Note that the number of settlers increased by 18 percent during the Al Aqsa Intifada ). This was an increase of 73 percent' ^ Marwan Bishara , Palestine/Israel: Peace or Apartheid Zed Books, 2003 p. 133: 'The settlement expansion has continued unabated...and accelerated after the launch of the peace process.' p. 133. ^ Baylis Thomas, The Dark Side of Zionism: Israel's Quest for Security Through Dominance Lexington Books, 3011 p. 137: \"Six years after the agreement there were more Israeli settlements, less freedom of movement, and worse economic conditions.\" Settlement building and roads for Jewish settlers proceeded at a frenetic pace under Barak – the classic Zionist maneuver of creating of facts on the ground to preclude a Palestinian state.' p. 137. ^ Barahona, Ana (2013). Bearing Witness: Eight weeks in Palestine . London: Metete. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-908099-02-0 . ^ \"Summary of the Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004\" (PDF) . International Court of Justice. 9 July 2004. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2014 . Retrieved 9 November 2011 . ^ \"fco.gov.uk\" . Archived from the original on 30 August 2010. ^ Regarding international organizations and courts of law, see \"Israeli settlements under international law\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2014 . Retrieved 1 March 2014 . ; regarding the UN, see UN General Assembly resolution 39/146, 14 December 1984; UN Security Council Resolution 446, 22 March 1979; and International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, 9 July 2004, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, para 120; Regarding the European Union position, see The Syrian Golan Archived 3 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ \"Jerusalem\" . Peace Now . Archived from the original on 25 April 2023 . Retrieved 5 January 2023 . ^ \"Settlements above the Law: BBC Eye investigates extremist settlers in the West Bank and speaks to the Palestinian families who have been forcibly expelled from their homes\" . www.bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 12 November 2024 . The BBC independently verified the location of 196 outposts established in the occupied West Bank, almost half of them built in the past five years. Documents seen by BBC Eye reveal that some of the settlers, who have established these herding outposts, have been supported by two powerful organisations in Israel. One of these organisations describes itself as \"an arm of the Israeli state\". ^ \"Growth rate of settlements plummets to all-time low\" . The Jerusalem Post . 5 September 2021. ISSN 0792-822X . Archived from the original on 22 April 2023 . Retrieved 1 June 2022 . ^ \"Population\" . Peace Now . Archived from the original on 11 June 2022 . Retrieved 1 June 2022 . ^ \"Regional Statistics\" . Israel Central Bureau of Statistics . Retrieved 21 March 2026 . ^ * Gershom Gorenberg (2007). The Accidental Empire: Israel and the Birth of the Settlements, 1967–1977 . Macmillan. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-8050-8241-8 . So argued the government of Israel before the country's Supreme Court in the spring of 2005, defending its decision to dismantle all Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip and four in the northern West Bank. ^ Robert Cryer, Hakan Friman, Darryl Robinson, Elizabeth Wilmshurst, An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure, Cambridge University Press 2010 p.308 ^ Ghislain Poissonnier, Eric David, 'Israeli Settlements in the West Bank, a War Crime?,' Archived 3 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine Revue des droits de l'homme, 2020. ^ 'Status of Settlements Under International Law,' Archived 25 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International pp.8,29f. ^ Stone, Julius (2004). Lacey, Ian (ed.). International Law and the Arab-Israel Conflict: Extracts from \"Israel and Palestine Assault on the Law of Nations\" by Professor Julius Stone (2nd ed.). Jirlac Publications. ISBN 978-0-975-10730-0 . ^ Byron, Christine (2013). War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978-1-847-79275-4 . ^ \"Palestinians condemn settlements plan\" . The Financial Times . 20 May 2011. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022 . Retrieved 27 March 2012 . ^ \"OIC Secretary General hails EU decision on Israeli settlements\" Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine . United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine – OIC Statement to UN. Accessed 14 March 2015. ^ \"Israeli settlement plan denounced\" . BBC. 8 November 2009. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019 . Retrieved 16 March 2010 . ^ \"Israeli settlements – DW – 07/21/2009\" . dw.com . Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 18 February 2023 . ^ \"Russia's stance on Israeli settlements in West Bank remains unchanged — ministry\" . TASS . Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 18 February 2023 . ^ \"Britain: Israeli settlements are 'illegal' and 'obstacle' to peace\" . Haaretz . 4 November 2009. Archived from the original on 15 January 2010 . Retrieved 16 March 2010 . ^ \"France condemns Israel over settlement building decision\" . Business Standard . 21 March 2014. Archived from the original on 9 July 2018 . Retrieved 5 April 2014 . ^ \"EU's Ashton SAYS Israeli settlement plans hurt peace moves\" . Reuters. 15 March 2010. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011 . Retrieved 16 March 2010 . ^ \"UN Security Council Resolution 465\" . Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. ^ * \"What next for Gaza and West Bank?\" . BBC. 30 August 2005. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018 . Retrieved 5 January 2010 . Most Israelis support the pullout, but some feel the government has given in to Palestinian militant groups, and worry that further withdrawals will follow. Palestinian critics point out that Gaza will remain under Israeli control, and that they are being denied a political say in the disengagement process. Yearbook of the United Nations 2005 . United Nations Publications. 2007. p. 514. ISBN 978-92-1-100967-5 . The Israeli Government was preparing to implement an unprecedented initiative: the disengagement of all Israeli civilians and forces from the Gaza Strip and the dismantling of four settlements in the northern West Bank. Yael Yishai (1987). Land Or Peace . Hoover Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8179-8523-3 . During 1982 Israel's government stuck to its territorial policy in word and deed. All the settlements in Sinai were evacuated in accordance with the Camp David Accords, but settlement activity in the other territories continued uninterrupted. A few days after the final withdrawal from Sinai had been completed, Begin announced that he would introduce a resolution barring future governments from dismantling settlements, even as a result of peace negotiations. ^ * Roberts, Adam (1990). \"Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967\". The American Journal of International Law . 84 (1). American Society of International Law: 85– 86. doi : 10.2307/2203016 . JSTOR 2203016 . S2CID 145514740 . The international community has taken a critical view of both deportations and settlements as being contrary to international law. General Assembly resolutions have condemned the deportations since 1969, and have done so by overwhelming majorities in recent years. Likewise, they have consistently deplored the establishment of settlements, and have done so by overwhelming majorities throughout the period (since the end of 1976) of the rapid expansion in their numbers. The Security Council has also been critical of deportations and settlements; and other bodies have viewed them as an obstacle to peace, and illegal under international law. Pertile, Marco (2005). \" 'Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory': A Missed Opportunity for International Humanitarian Law?\". In Conforti, Benedetto; Bravo, Luigi (eds.). The Italian Yearbook of International Law . Vol. 14. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 141. ISBN 978-90-04-15027-0 . the establishment of the Israeli settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territory has been considered illegal by the international community and by the majority of legal scholars. Barak-Erez, Daphne (2006). \"Israel: The security barrier—between international law, constitutional law, and domestic judicial review\" . International Journal of Constitutional Law . 4 (3). Oxford University Press: 548. doi : 10.1093/icon/mol021 . The real controversy hovering over all the litigation on the security barrier concerns the fate of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories. Since 1967, Israel has allowed and even encouraged its citizens to live in the new settlements established in the territories, motivated by religious and national sentiments attached to the history of the Jewish nation in the land of Israel. This policy has also been justified in terms of security interests, taking into consideration the dangerous geographic circumstances of Israel before 1967 (where Israeli areas on the Mediterranean coast were potentially threatened by Jordanian control of the West Bank ridge). The international community, for its part, has viewed this policy as patently illegal, based on the provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention that prohibit moving populations to or from territories under occupation. Drew, Catriona (1997). \"Self-determination and population transfer\". In Bowen, Stephen (ed.). Human rights, self-determination and political change in the occupied Palestinian Territories . International studies in human rights. Vol. 52. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 151– 152. ISBN 978-90-411-0502-8 . It can thus clearly be concluded that the transfer of Israeli settlers into the occupied territories violates not only the laws of belligerent occupation but the Palestinian right of self-determination under international law. The question remains, however, whether this is of any practical value. In other words, given the view of the international community that the Israeli settlements are illegal under the law if belligerent occupation... International Labour Organization (2005). \"The situation of workers of the occupied Arab territories\" (PDF) . p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 June 2016 . Retrieved 8 January 2012 . The international community considers Israeli settlements within the occupied territories illegal and in breach of, inter alia, United Nations Security Council resolution 465 of 1 March 1980 calling on Israel \"to dismantle the existing settlements and in particular to cease, on an urgent basis, the establishment, construction and planning of settlements in the Arab territories occupied since 1967, including Jerusalem\". Civilian and military presence as strategies of territorial control: The Arab-Israel conflict, David Newman, Political Geography Quarterly Volume 8, Issue 3, July 1989, Pages 215–227 ^ \"Jewish settlements no longer illegal – US\" . 18 November 2019. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019 . Retrieved 18 November 2019 . ^ \"Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announces reversal of Obama-era stance on Israeli settlements\" . www.cbsnews.com . 18 November 2019. Archived from the original on 18 November 2019 . Retrieved 18 November 2019 . ^ Hansler, Jennifer; Britzky, Haley; Judd, Donald (23 February 2024). \"Blinken says any expansion of West Bank settlements would be inconsistent with international law | CNN Politics\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 23 February 2024 . Retrieved 23 February 2024 . ^ \"Blinken reverses Trump-era policy on Israeli settlements in occupied West Bank\" . 23 February 2024. Archived from the original on 23 February 2024 . Retrieved 23 February 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Gaza Strip",
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   "lead_before": "Autonomous territory in the Middle East Not to be confused with Gaza Province or Gaza Governorate . The Gaza Strip , also known simply as Gaza , is the smaller of the two Palestinian territories (the other being the West Bank ) that make up the State of Palestine in the Southern Levant region of West Asia . Gaza is bordered by Egypt on the southwest, Israel on the east and north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Its capital and largest city is Gaza City . The territorial boundaries were established by the Green Line of the 1949 Armistice Agreements at the conclusion of the 1948 Arab–Israeli war , at which time Gaza was controlled by the Kingdom of Egypt . During that period the All-Palestine Protectorate , also known as All-Palestine, was established with limited recognition and it became a refuge for Palestinians who fled or were expelled during the 1948 Palestine war . Later, during the Six-Day War , Israel captured and occupied the Gaza Strip , initiating its decades-long military occupation of the Palestinian territories. The mid-1990s Oslo Accords established the Palestinian Authority (PA) as a limited governing authority, initially led by the secular party Fatah until that party's electoral defeat in 2006 to the Sunni Islamist Hamas . Hamas would then take over the governance of Gaza in the Battle of Gaza the next year, subsequently warring with Israel . The restrictions on movement and goods in Gaza imposed by Israel date back to the early 1990s. In 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew its military forces from Gaza , dismantled its settlements , and implemented a temporary blockade of Gaza . The blockade became indefinite after the 2007 Hamas takeover. Egypt also began its blockade of Gaza in 2007. Despite the Israeli disengagement, Gaza was still considered occupied by Israel under international law , being described as an \"open-air prison\". Israel's actions in Gaza since the start of the war that began in 2023 have resulted in large-scale loss of life, mass population displacement , a humanitarian crisis , and an ongoing famine . These actions have been described by scholars, international law experts, and human-rights organizations as constituting a genocide against the Palestinian people . A provisional ceasefire began in mid-January 2025, lasting two months. In August, Israel began an offensive on Gaza City . By 9 October 2025, Israel and Hamas agreed to the first part of a United States-led peace plan . United Nations Security Council Resolution 2803 , adopted on 17 November 2025, contains provisions for the transitional governance of the Gaza Strip . The Gaza Strip is 41 kilometres (25 miles) long, from 6 to 12 km (3.7 to 7.5 mi) wide, and has a total area of 365 km (141 sq mi). As of 2010, it has a population of just over 2 million, mostly of Palestinian refugees and their descendants. It is one of the most densely populated territories in the world , with a population density similar to that of cities like Tel Aviv or London . Before the Gaza war , its capital Gaza City was roughly the 90th most densely populated city in the world, and had about a third of the population density of cities like Malé or Giza . The Gaza Strip has a high proportion of youth, with 43.5% being children 14 or younger and 50% under age of 18. Sunni Islam is almost ubiquitous, with a Palestinian Christian minority . Gaza has an annual population growth rate of 1.99% (2023 est.), the 39th-highest in the world. Gaza's unemployment rate is among the highest in the world, with an overall unemployment rate of 46% and a youth unemployment rate of 70%. Despite this, the area's 97% literacy rate is higher than that of nearby Egypt, while youth literacy is 88%. Gaza has throughout the years been seen as a source of Palestinian nationalism and resistance. ^ Sanger, Andrew (2011). \"The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla\" . In Schmitt, M. N.; Arimatsu, Louise; McCormack, Tim (eds.). Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law - 2010 . Vol. 13. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 429. doi : 10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14 . ISBN 978-90-6704-811-8 . Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a State nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However, the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border, and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will. Israel continues to control all of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for water, electricity, telecommunications and other utilities, currency, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry. It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied. * Scobbie, Iain (2012). Elizabeth Wilmshurst (ed.). International Law and the Classification of Conflicts . Oxford University Press . p. 295. ISBN 978-0-19-965775-9 . Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza. * Gawerc, Michelle (2012). Prefiguring Peace: Israeli-Palestinian Peacebuilding Partnerships . Lexington Books . p. 44. ISBN 9780739166109 . Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2016 . While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, it remained in control of all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. In addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water, electricity sewage communication networks and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). In other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement Palestinians – as well as many human rights organizations and international bodies – argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied. ^ Cuyckens, Hanne (1 October 2016). \"Is Israel Still an Occupying Power in Gaza?\" . Netherlands International Law Review . 63 (3): 275– 295. doi : 10.1007/s40802-016-0070-1 . ISSN 0165-070X . ^ Cuyckens, Hanne (2016). \"Is Israel Still an Occupying Power in Gaza?\" . Netherlands International Law Review . 63 (3): 275– 295. doi : 10.1007/s40802-016-0070-1 . ISSN 0165-070X . ^ Campa, Kelly; Carter, Brian; Hempel, Parker; Moorman, Carolyn; Morrison, Nidal; Parry, Andie; Wells, Katherine (10 October 2025). \"Iran Update, October 10, 2025\" . understandingwar.org . Institute for the Study of War . Retrieved 13 October 2025 . ^ \"Did a 'Harvard report' reveal 377,000 Gazans are 'missing'? The number has been misinterpreted\" . France24 . 20 June 2025. ^ Chami, Ralph; Espinoza, Raphael; Montiel, Peter J. (26 January 2021). Macroeconomic Policy in Fragile States . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-885309-1 . Archived from the original on 11 April 2023 . Retrieved 4 August 2021 . ^ The New Oxford Dictionary of English . 1998. p. 761. ISBN 0-19-861263-X . \"Gaza Strip /'gɑːzə/ a strip of territory under the control of the Palestinian National Authority and Hamas, on the SE Mediterranean coast including the town of Gaza...\". ^ Fabian, Emanuel (25 May 2025). \"IDF aims to capture 75% of Gaza Strip in 2 months in new offensive against Hamas\" . The Times of Israel . Retrieved 11 June 2025 . ^ \"Gaza Strip | Definition, History, Facts, & Map | Britannica\" . www.britannica.com . 6 September 2024. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023 . Retrieved 6 September 2024 . ^ Samson, Elizabeth (2010). \"Is Gaza Occupied: Redefining the Status of Gaza under International Law\" . American University International Law Review . 25 : 915. Archived from the original on 22 November 2023 . Retrieved 22 November 2023 . ^ Dunning, Tristan (2016). Hamas, Jihad and Popular Legitimacy: Reinterpreting Resistance in Palestine . Routledge . p. 212. ISBN 978-1-317-38495-3 . Archived from the original on 2 November 2022. Since taking sole control of Gaza in June 2007, Hamas has proven itself to be a remarkably resilient and resourceful government entity. The movement has clearly entrenched itself as the hegemonic power in the coastal enclave to such an extent that the International Crisis Group contends that the power struggle in Gaza is no longer between Hamas and Fatah. Rather the main source of confrontation is between Hamas and other more hardline Islamists and salafists ... Hamas has been far more successful in an administrative sense than the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank, despite having access to only a fraction of the resources. ^ Joshua Castellino, Kathleen A. Cavanaugh, Minority Rights in the Middle East ; Archived 2 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Press 2013 p.150:'Palestinians under occupation in the West Bank and Gaza constitute a majority (demographically) with representation by the Palestinian National Authority (PNA), a self-governing body run by Fatah in the West Bank, and by Hamas in the Gaza Strip'. David Rose , \"The Gaza Bombshell\" ; Archived 28 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine Vanity Fair April, 2008. 'The plan was for forces led by Dahlan, and armed with new weapons supplied at America's behest, to give Fatah the muscle it needed to remove the democratically elected Hamas-led government from power. . But the secret plan backfired, resulting in a further setback for American foreign policy under Bush. Instead of driving its enemies out of power, the U.S.-backed Fatah fighters inadvertently provoked Hamas to seize total control of Gaza.' Sara Roy , Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza, p. 45 ; Archived 2 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine . 'Dahlan, who was supported by U.S. officials, has been a bitter enemy of Hamas since his 1996 crackdown on the movement. He consistently refused to accept the Palestinian unity government brokered by the Saudi government in the Mecca Agreement \"and made his opposition intolerable to Hamas when he refused to subject the security forces under his command, armed and trained by the U.S., to the legitimate Palestinian unity government as agreed between Hamas and Fatah.\" Alistair Crooke, a former Middle East adviser to the EU foreign policy chief Javier Solana , similarly observed, \"Dahlan refused to deal with (the independent interior minister appointed to the unity government), and put his troops on the streets in defiance of the interior minister. Hamas felt that they had little option but to take control of security away from forces which were in fact creating insecurity.\" Hence, Hamas was not attempting a coup against the government or the Fatah organization as a whole but also against Dahlan's U.S.-funded militia (and individual Fatah loyalists it blamed for the murder of Hamas members).' ^ \"Preliminary Assessment Of The Economic Impact Of The Destruction In Gaza\" . Archived from the original on 5 April 2024 . Retrieved 5 August 2024 . ^ Alfarsi, Haroun (10 October 2023). \"Gaza Strip Blockade: Explained\" . Profolus . Archived from the original on 30 May 2024 . Retrieved 30 May 2024 . ^ \"Gaza Strip: devastated by conflict and Israel's economic blockade\" . Reuters . 12 October 2023. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023 . Retrieved 13 November 2023 . ^ Sanger, Andrew (2011). \"The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla\" . In Schmitt, M. N.; Arimatsu, Louise; McCormack, Tim (eds.). Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law - 2010 . Vol. 13. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 429. doi : 10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14 . ISBN 978-90-6704-811-8 . Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a State nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border. and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will. Israel continues to control six of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Troops from the Israeli Defence Force regularly enter pans of the territory and/or deploy missile attacks, drones and sonic bombs into Gaza. Israel has declared a no-go buffer zone that stretches deep into Gaza: if Gazans enter this zone they are shot on sight. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for water, electricity, telecommunications and other utilities, currency, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry. It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied. ^ \"Military occupation of Palestine by Israel\" . Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project . 18 May 2014. Archived from the original on 4 April 2022 . Retrieved 20 November 2023 . Scobbie, Iain (2012). Elizabeth Wilmshurst (ed.). International Law and the Classification of Conflicts . Oxford University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-19-965775-9 . Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza. Gawerc, Michelle (2012). Prefiguring Peace: Israeli-Palestinian Peacebuilding Partnerships . Lexington Books. p. 44. ISBN 9780739166109 . Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2016 . While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, it remained in control of all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. In addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water, electricity sewage communication networks and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). In other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement Palestinians – as well as many human right organizations and international bodies – argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied. ^ Sara Roy , Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza: Engaging the Islamist Social Sector ; Archived 2 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine Princeton University Press, 2013 p.41:'Hamas's democratic victory, however, was short-lived ... followed as it was in June 2006 by an Israeli and US-led international political and economic boycott of the new Palestinian government. The boycott amounted to a form of collective punishment against the entire Palestinian population and, to my knowledge, was the first time in the history of the conflict that the international community imposed sanctions on the occupied rather than the occupier.' ^ Cite error: The named reference open-air prison was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Dannenbaum, Tom; Dill, Janina (2024). \"International Law in Gaza: Belligerent Intent and Provisional Measures\" . American Journal of International Law . 118 (4): 659– 683. doi : 10.1017/ajil.2024.53 . ^ \"GAZA STRIP: Famine confirmed in Gaza Governorate, projected to expand | 1 July - 30 September 2025\" (PDF) . Integrated Food Security Phase Classification . 22 August 2025. ^ Dumper, Michael; Badran, Amneh (2024). \"Introduction\". In Dumper, Michael; Badran, Amneh (eds.). Routledge Handbook on Palestine (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 2. doi : 10.4324/9781003031994 . ISBN 9781003031994 . In this context we should not overlook the latest turning point in the history of Palestine – the attack by Hamas on 7th October 2023 on Israeli settlements adjacent to Gaza and the subsequent genocidal war that the state of Israel has carried out in the Gaza strip Speri, Alice (20 December 2024). \"Defining genocide: how a rift over Gaza sparked a crisis among scholars\" . Guardian . Retrieved 23 December 2024 . Narea, Nicole (25 October 2024). \"Is Israel committing genocide? Reexamining the question, a year later\" . Vox . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) Albanese, Francesca (25 March 2024). Anatomy of a Genocide: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, Francesca Albanese (PDF) (Report). United Nations Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories . p. 1. By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met Amnesty International (2024). 'You Feel Like You Are Subhuman': Israel's Genocide Against Palestinians In Gaza (PDF) (Report). p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2024. This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide. Traverso, Enzo (2024). Gaza Faces History . Other Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-63542-555-0 . The only normative definition we have, codified at the United Nations Genocide Convention of 1948, accurately describes the current situation in Palestine ... describes exactly what is happening in Gaza today \"One year of denouncing the genocide of Palestinians in Gaza\" . International Federation for Human Rights . 12 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 June 2025 . One year ago, the FIDH International Board, its governing body elected by all its member organisations, recognised, after extensive debate and examination, that Israel was carrying out genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza B'Tselem (July 2025). Our Genocide (PDF) (Report). p. 86. The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid — all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip. ^ Mohyeldin, Ayman; Hamdan, Basel (10 December 2024). \"Why Amnesty International and other experts say Israel is committing genocide in Gaza\" . MSNBC . Archived from the original on 3 July 2025. De Vogli, Roberto; Montomoli, Jonathan; Abu-Sittah, Ghassan; Pappé, Ilan (2025). \"Break the selective silence on the genocide in Gaza\". The Lancet . 406 (10504). Supplementary appendix pp. 3–4 . doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01541-7 . PMID 40752501 . van Laarhoven, Kasper; Peek, Eva; Walters, Derk (14 May 2025). \"Zeven gerenommeerde wetenschappers vrijwel eensgezind: Israël pleegt in Gaza genocide\" . NRC (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 15 May 2025 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . Tharoor, Ishaan (30 July 2025). \"Leading genocide scholars see a genocide happening in Gaza\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Arnon was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Gaza Strip ; Archived 12 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine Entry at the CIA World Factbook ^ NBC News, The Gaza Strip’s density, visualized: The area is one of the most densely populated places in the world , Jiachuan Wu, Joe Murphy and Nigel Chiwaya, Oct. 10, 2023, https://www.nbcnews.com/specials/gaza-strip-map-density-israel-hamas-conflict/index.html ^ Norman G. Finkelstein (2018). Gaza . University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-29571-1 . Archived from the original on 11 March 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2019 . ^ Humaid, Maram. \"Gaza graduates demand UNRWA solutions for high unemployment rate\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 13 November 2023 . Retrieved 13 November 2023 . ^ \"World Bank Open Data\" . World Bank Open Data . Archived from the original on 26 May 2023 . Retrieved 16 March 2024 . ^ Sara M. Roy (2016). The Gaza Strip . Institute for Palestine Studies USA, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-88728-321-5 . Archived from the original on 11 March 2024 . Retrieved 21 January 2024 . ^ Filiu, Jean-Pierre (1 November 2014). \"The Twelve Wars on Gaza\" (PDF) . Journal of Palestine Studies . 44 (1): 52– 60. doi : 10.1525/jps.2014.44.1.52 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 21 January 2024 . ^ Rynhold, Jonathan; Waxman, Dov (2008). \"Ideological Change and Israel's Disengagement from Gaza\" . Political Science Quarterly . 123 (1): 11– 37. doi : 10.1002/j.1538-165X.2008.tb00615.x . ISSN 0032-3195 . JSTOR 20202970 . Archived from the original on 17 October 2023 . Retrieved 21 January 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Autonomous territory in the Middle East Not to be confused with Gaza Province or Gaza Governorate . The Gaza Strip , also known simply as Gaza , is the smaller of the two Palestinian territories (the other being the West Bank ) that make up the State of Palestine in the Southern Levant region of West Asia . Gaza is bordered by Egypt on the southwest, Israel on the east and north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Its capital and largest city is Gaza City . The territorial boundaries were established by the Green Line of the 1949 Armistice Agreements at the conclusion of the 1948 Arab–Israeli war , at which time Gaza was controlled by the Kingdom of Egypt . During that period the All-Palestine Protectorate , also known as All-Palestine, was established with limited recognition and it became a refuge for Palestinians who fled or were expelled during the 1948 Palestine war . Later, during the Six-Day War , Israel captured and occupied the Gaza Strip , initiating its decades-long military occupation of the Palestinian territories. The mid-1990s Oslo Accords established the Palestinian Authority (PA) as a limited governing authority, initially led by the secular party Fatah until that party's electoral defeat in 2006 to the Sunni Islamist Hamas . Hamas would then take over the governance of Gaza in the Battle of Gaza the next year, subsequently warring with Israel . The restrictions on movement and goods in Gaza imposed by Israel date back to the early 1990s. In 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew its military forces from Gaza , dismantled its settlements , and implemented a temporary blockade of Gaza . The blockade became indefinite after the 2007 Hamas takeover. Egypt also began its blockade of Gaza in 2007. Despite the Israeli disengagement, Gaza was still considered occupied by Israel under international law , being described as an \"open-air prison\". Israel's actions in Gaza since the start of the war that began in 2023 have resulted in large-scale loss of life, mass population displacement , a humanitarian crisis , and an ongoing famine . These actions have been described by scholars, international law experts, and human-rights organizations as constituting a genocide against the Palestinian people . A provisional ceasefire began in mid-January 2025, lasting two months. In August, Israel began an offensive on Gaza City . By 9 October 2025, Israel and Hamas agreed to the first part of a United States-led peace plan . United Nations Security Council Resolution 2803 , adopted on 17 November 2025, contains provisions for the transitional governance of the Gaza Strip . The Gaza Strip is 41 kilometres (25 miles) long, from 6 to 12 km (3.7 to 7.5 mi) wide, and has a total area of 365 km (141 sq mi). As of 2010, it has a population of just over 2 million, mostly of Palestinian refugees and their descendants. It is one of the most densely populated territories in the world , with a population density similar to that of cities like Tel Aviv or London . Before the Gaza war , its capital Gaza City was roughly the 90th most densely populated city in the world, and had about a third of the population density of cities like Malé or Giza . The Gaza Strip has a high proportion of youth, with 43.5% being children 14 or younger and 50% under age of 18. Sunni Islam is almost ubiquitous, with a Palestinian Christian minority . Gaza has an annual population growth rate of 1.99% (2023 est.), the 39th-highest in the world. Gaza's unemployment rate is among the highest in the world, with an overall unemployment rate of 46% and a youth unemployment rate of 70%. Despite this, the area's 97% literacy rate is higher than that of nearby Egypt, while youth literacy is 88%. Gaza has throughout the years been seen as a source of Palestinian nationalism and resistance. ^ Blackburn, Gavin (6 July 2026). \"Hamas announces dissolution of Gaza governing body, paves way for technocratic committee\" . Euro News . ^ Sanger, Andrew (2011). \"The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla\" . In Schmitt, M. N.; Arimatsu, Louise; McCormack, Tim (eds.). Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law - 2010 . Vol. 13. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 429. doi : 10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14 . ISBN 978-90-6704-811-8 . Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a State nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However, the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border, and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will. Israel continues to control all of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for water, electricity, telecommunications and other utilities, currency, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry. It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied. * Scobbie, Iain (2012). Elizabeth Wilmshurst (ed.). International Law and the Classification of Conflicts . Oxford University Press . p. 295. ISBN 978-0-19-965775-9 . Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza. * Gawerc, Michelle (2012). Prefiguring Peace: Israeli-Palestinian Peacebuilding Partnerships . Lexington Books . p. 44. ISBN 9780739166109 . Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2016 . While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, it remained in control of all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. In addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water, electricity sewage communication networks and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). In other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement Palestinians – as well as many human rights organizations and international bodies – argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied. ^ Cuyckens, Hanne (1 October 2016). \"Is Israel Still an Occupying Power in Gaza?\" . Netherlands International Law Review . 63 (3): 275– 295. doi : 10.1007/s40802-016-0070-1 . ISSN 0165-070X . ^ Cuyckens, Hanne (2016). \"Is Israel Still an Occupying Power in Gaza?\" . Netherlands International Law Review . 63 (3): 275– 295. doi : 10.1007/s40802-016-0070-1 . ISSN 0165-070X . ^ Campa, Kelly; Carter, Brian; Hempel, Parker; Moorman, Carolyn; Morrison, Nidal; Parry, Andie; Wells, Katherine (10 October 2025). \"Iran Update, October 10, 2025\" . understandingwar.org . Institute for the Study of War . Retrieved 13 October 2025 . ^ \"Did a 'Harvard report' reveal 377,000 Gazans are 'missing'? The number has been misinterpreted\" . France24 . 20 June 2025. ^ Chami, Ralph; Espinoza, Raphael; Montiel, Peter J. (26 January 2021). Macroeconomic Policy in Fragile States . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-885309-1 . Archived from the original on 11 April 2023 . Retrieved 4 August 2021 . ^ The New Oxford Dictionary of English . 1998. p. 761. ISBN 0-19-861263-X . \"Gaza Strip /'gɑːzə/ a strip of territory under the control of the Palestinian National Authority and Hamas, on the SE Mediterranean coast including the town of Gaza...\". ^ Fabian, Emanuel (25 May 2025). \"IDF aims to capture 75% of Gaza Strip in 2 months in new offensive against Hamas\" . The Times of Israel . Retrieved 11 June 2025 . ^ \"Gaza Strip | Definition, History, Facts, & Map | Britannica\" . www.britannica.com . 6 September 2024. Archived from the original on 19 October 2023 . Retrieved 6 September 2024 . ^ Samson, Elizabeth (2010). \"Is Gaza Occupied: Redefining the Status of Gaza under International Law\" . American University International Law Review . 25 : 915. Archived from the original on 22 November 2023 . Retrieved 22 November 2023 . ^ Dunning, Tristan (2016). Hamas, Jihad and Popular Legitimacy: Reinterpreting Resistance in Palestine . Routledge . p. 212. ISBN 978-1-317-38495-3 . Archived from the original on 2 November 2022. Since taking sole control of Gaza in June 2007, Hamas has proven itself to be a remarkably resilient and resourceful government entity. The movement has clearly entrenched itself as the hegemonic power in the coastal enclave to such an extent that the International Crisis Group contends that the power struggle in Gaza is no longer between Hamas and Fatah. Rather the main source of confrontation is between Hamas and other more hardline Islamists and salafists ... Hamas has been far more successful in an administrative sense than the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank, despite having access to only a fraction of the resources. ^ Joshua Castellino, Kathleen A. Cavanaugh, Minority Rights in the Middle East ; Archived 2 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Press 2013 p.150:'Palestinians under occupation in the West Bank and Gaza constitute a majority (demographically) with representation by the Palestinian National Authority (PNA), a self-governing body run by Fatah in the West Bank, and by Hamas in the Gaza Strip'. David Rose , \"The Gaza Bombshell\" ; Archived 28 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine Vanity Fair April, 2008. 'The plan was for forces led by Dahlan, and armed with new weapons supplied at America's behest, to give Fatah the muscle it needed to remove the democratically elected Hamas-led government from power. . But the secret plan backfired, resulting in a further setback for American foreign policy under Bush. Instead of driving its enemies out of power, the U.S.-backed Fatah fighters inadvertently provoked Hamas to seize total control of Gaza.' Sara Roy , Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza, p. 45 ; Archived 2 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine . 'Dahlan, who was supported by U.S. officials, has been a bitter enemy of Hamas since his 1996 crackdown on the movement. He consistently refused to accept the Palestinian unity government brokered by the Saudi government in the Mecca Agreement \"and made his opposition intolerable to Hamas when he refused to subject the security forces under his command, armed and trained by the U.S., to the legitimate Palestinian unity government as agreed between Hamas and Fatah.\" Alistair Crooke, a former Middle East adviser to the EU foreign policy chief Javier Solana , similarly observed, \"Dahlan refused to deal with (the independent interior minister appointed to the unity government), and put his troops on the streets in defiance of the interior minister. Hamas felt that they had little option but to take control of security away from forces which were in fact creating insecurity.\" Hence, Hamas was not attempting a coup against the government or the Fatah organization as a whole but also against Dahlan's U.S.-funded militia (and individual Fatah loyalists it blamed for the murder of Hamas members).' ^ \"Preliminary Assessment Of The Economic Impact Of The Destruction In Gaza\" . Archived from the original on 5 April 2024 . Retrieved 5 August 2024 . ^ Alfarsi, Haroun (10 October 2023). \"Gaza Strip Blockade: Explained\" . Profolus . Archived from the original on 30 May 2024 . Retrieved 30 May 2024 . ^ \"Gaza Strip: devastated by conflict and Israel's economic blockade\" . Reuters . 12 October 2023. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023 . Retrieved 13 November 2023 . ^ Sanger, Andrew (2011). \"The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla\" . In Schmitt, M. N.; Arimatsu, Louise; McCormack, Tim (eds.). Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law - 2010 . Vol. 13. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 429. doi : 10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14 . ISBN 978-90-6704-811-8 . Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a State nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border. and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will. Israel continues to control six of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Troops from the Israeli Defence Force regularly enter pans of the territory and/or deploy missile attacks, drones and sonic bombs into Gaza. Israel has declared a no-go buffer zone that stretches deep into Gaza: if Gazans enter this zone they are shot on sight. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for water, electricity, telecommunications and other utilities, currency, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry. It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied. ^ \"Military occupation of Palestine by Israel\" . Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project . 18 May 2014. Archived from the original on 4 April 2022 . Retrieved 20 November 2023 . Scobbie, Iain (2012). Elizabeth Wilmshurst (ed.). International Law and the Classification of Conflicts . Oxford University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-19-965775-9 . Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza. Gawerc, Michelle (2012). Prefiguring Peace: Israeli-Palestinian Peacebuilding Partnerships . Lexington Books. p. 44. ISBN 9780739166109 . Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2016 . While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, it remained in control of all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. In addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water, electricity sewage communication networks and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). In other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement Palestinians – as well as many human right organizations and international bodies – argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied. ^ Sara Roy , Hamas and Civil Society in Gaza: Engaging the Islamist Social Sector ; Archived 2 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine Princeton University Press, 2013 p.41:'Hamas's democratic victory, however, was short-lived ... followed as it was in June 2006 by an Israeli and US-led international political and economic boycott of the new Palestinian government. The boycott amounted to a form of collective punishment against the entire Palestinian population and, to my knowledge, was the first time in the history of the conflict that the international community imposed sanctions on the occupied rather than the occupier.' ^ Cite error: The named reference open-air prison was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Dannenbaum, Tom; Dill, Janina (2024). \"International Law in Gaza: Belligerent Intent and Provisional Measures\" . American Journal of International Law . 118 (4): 659– 683. doi : 10.1017/ajil.2024.53 . ^ \"GAZA STRIP: Famine confirmed in Gaza Governorate, projected to expand | 1 July - 30 September 2025\" (PDF) . Integrated Food Security Phase Classification . 22 August 2025. ^ Dumper, Michael; Badran, Amneh (2024). \"Introduction\". In Dumper, Michael; Badran, Amneh (eds.). Routledge Handbook on Palestine (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 2. doi : 10.4324/9781003031994 . ISBN 9781003031994 . In this context we should not overlook the latest turning point in the history of Palestine – the attack by Hamas on 7th October 2023 on Israeli settlements adjacent to Gaza and the subsequent genocidal war that the state of Israel has carried out in the Gaza strip Speri, Alice (20 December 2024). \"Defining genocide: how a rift over Gaza sparked a crisis among scholars\" . Guardian . Retrieved 23 December 2024 . Narea, Nicole (25 October 2024). \"Is Israel committing genocide? Reexamining the question, a year later\" . Vox . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) Albanese, Francesca (25 March 2024). Anatomy of a Genocide: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, Francesca Albanese (PDF) (Report). United Nations Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories . p. 1. By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met Amnesty International (2024). 'You Feel Like You Are Subhuman': Israel's Genocide Against Palestinians In Gaza (PDF) (Report). p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2024. This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide. Traverso, Enzo (2024). Gaza Faces History . Other Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-63542-555-0 . The only normative definition we have, codified at the United Nations Genocide Convention of 1948, accurately describes the current situation in Palestine ... describes exactly what is happening in Gaza today \"One year of denouncing the genocide of Palestinians in Gaza\" . International Federation for Human Rights . 12 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 June 2025 . One year ago, the FIDH International Board, its governing body elected by all its member organisations, recognised, after extensive debate and examination, that Israel was carrying out genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza B'Tselem (July 2025). Our Genocide (PDF) (Report). p. 86. The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid — all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip. ^ Mohyeldin, Ayman; Hamdan, Basel (10 December 2024). \"Why Amnesty International and other experts say Israel is committing genocide in Gaza\" . MSNBC . Archived from the original on 3 July 2025. De Vogli, Roberto; Montomoli, Jonathan; Abu-Sittah, Ghassan; Pappé, Ilan (2025). \"Break the selective silence on the genocide in Gaza\". The Lancet . 406 (10504). Supplementary appendix pp. 3–4 . doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01541-7 . PMID 40752501 . van Laarhoven, Kasper; Peek, Eva; Walters, Derk (14 May 2025). \"Zeven gerenommeerde wetenschappers vrijwel eensgezind: Israël pleegt in Gaza genocide\" . NRC (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 15 May 2025 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . Tharoor, Ishaan (30 July 2025). \"Leading genocide scholars see a genocide happening in Gaza\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Arnon was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Gaza Strip ; Archived 12 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine Entry at the CIA World Factbook ^ NBC News, The Gaza Strip’s density, visualized: The area is one of the most densely populated places in the world , Jiachuan Wu, Joe Murphy and Nigel Chiwaya, Oct. 10, 2023, https://www.nbcnews.com/specials/gaza-strip-map-density-israel-hamas-conflict/index.html ^ Norman G. Finkelstein (2018). Gaza . University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-29571-1 . Archived from the original on 11 March 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2019 . ^ Humaid, Maram. \"Gaza graduates demand UNRWA solutions for high unemployment rate\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 13 November 2023 . Retrieved 13 November 2023 . ^ \"World Bank Open Data\" . World Bank Open Data . Archived from the original on 26 May 2023 . Retrieved 16 March 2024 . ^ Sara M. Roy (2016). The Gaza Strip . Institute for Palestine Studies USA, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-88728-321-5 . Archived from the original on 11 March 2024 . Retrieved 21 January 2024 . ^ Filiu, Jean-Pierre (1 November 2014). \"The Twelve Wars on Gaza\" (PDF) . Journal of Palestine Studies . 44 (1): 52– 60. doi : 10.1525/jps.2014.44.1.52 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 21 January 2024 . ^ Rynhold, Jonathan; Waxman, Dov (2008). \"Ideological Change and Israel's Disengagement from Gaza\" . Political Science Quarterly . 123 (1): 11– 37. doi : 10.1002/j.1538-165X.2008.tb00615.x . ISSN 0032-3195 . JSTOR 20202970 . Archived from the original on 17 October 2023 . Retrieved 21 January 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Right to exist",
   "pageid": 3378588,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-28T17:39:40Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Right_to_exist&oldid=1360405785",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Right_to_exist&oldid=1366550716",
   "lead_before": "Conceptual right of nations French historian Ernest Renan defended the right to exist in \" What Is a Nation? \" (1882). The right to exist is said to be an attribute of nations , which are more commonly called states . According to the 1882 essay \" What Is a Nation? \" by the 19th-century French philosopher Ernest Renan , a state has the right to exist when individuals are willing to sacrifice their own interests for the community it represents. Unlike self-determination , the right to exist is an attribute of states rather than of peoples. It is not a right recognized in international law. The phrase has featured prominently since the 1950s with regard to the legitimacy of the State of Israel in the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . The right to exist of a de facto state may be balanced against another state's right to territorial integrity . Proponents of the right to exist trace it back to the \"right of existence\", said to be a fundamental right of states recognized by writers on international law for hundreds of years. ^ Lagerwall, Anne. \"The Paradoxical Protection of State's Territorial Integrity by the United Nations: Law versus Power?\" . All Academic . Retrieved 2 August 2025 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Oppenheim, Lassa and Ronald Roxburgh, (2005) International Law Archived 5 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine , p. 192–193.",
   "lead_after": "Conceptual right of nations The right to exist is a concept in political philosophy and international relations referring to a claimed right of a state (or nation ) to exist. A state's right to exist is neither codified in international law nor, with some exceptions, recognized as a distinct legal category by the majority of international-law scholarship. A doctrine of fundamental rights of states — including a right to political existence, self-preservation, and continuity — was widely discussed among international lawyers from the 18th century onward. A proposed right to exist was considered but ultimately excluded from the International Law Commission 's 1949 draft Declaration on Rights and Duties of States, and the draft declaration itself was never adopted by the UN General Assembly. In his 1882 essay \" What Is a Nation? \", French philosopher Ernest Renan argued that a nation possesses the right to exist so long as its members demonstrate a willingness to make sacrifices for the community it represents, describing it as a \"daily plebiscite .\" The phrase has featured prominently with regard to the legitimacy of the State of Israel in the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . ^ Cite error: The named reference Renan was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Gaza genocide denial",
   "pageid": 80955639,
   "revid_before": 1361152540,
   "revid_after": 1366701581,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-29T17:06:46Z",
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaza_genocide_denial&oldid=1366701581",
   "lead_before": "Efforts to deny that Israel is committing genocide against Palestinians during the Gaza war include challenging the scale and intent of Israeli military actions, casting doubt on casualty statistics, reframing Israel's actions as lawful self-defense, and portraying critics as antisemitic or aligned with Hamas . Observers say that such rhetoric mirrors long-established patterns in other cases of genocide denial – most prominently the denial of the Armenian genocide – employing strategies of deflection, victim-blaming , moral inversion, and legalistic reinterpretation. As with other cases of genocide denial, it includes efforts to suppress information and criticism. Besides being the position of the government of Israel , other states that deny the Gaza genocide include supporters of Israel such as the United States , the United Kingdom , and Germany . ^ Cite error: The named reference Stanton was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference revisionists was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference DanielePeruginiAlbanese was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Sultany was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Shaw was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ McDoom 2025 , pp. 1–18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Akcam was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Trump Rejects Israel Is Committing Genocide In Gaza: 'They're In a War' \" . Latin Times . 4 August 2025 . Retrieved 3 March 2026 . ^ Farber, Matt Dathan (8 September 2025). \"Israel is not committing genocide in Gaza, government concludes\" . www.thetimes.com . Retrieved 3 March 2026 . ^ Talmon, Stefan (15 January 2024). \"Germany Rushes to Declare Intention to Intervene in the Genocide Case brought by South Africa Against Israel Before the International Court of Justice\" . GPIL - German Practice in International Law . Retrieved 3 March 2026 . ^ David Latona, Andreas Rinke (18 September 2025). \"Merz: Germany still to decide whether to back sanctions on Israel\" . Reuters . Retrieved 3 March 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Efforts to deny that Israel is committing genocide against Palestinians during the Gaza war include challenging the scale and intent of Israeli military actions, casting doubt on casualty statistics, reframing Israel's actions as lawful self-defense, and portraying critics as antisemitic or aligned with Hamas . Observers say that such rhetoric mirrors long-established patterns in other cases of genocide denial – most prominently the denial of the Armenian genocide – employing strategies of deflection, victim-blaming , moral inversion, and legalistic reinterpretation. As with other cases of genocide denial, it includes efforts to suppress information and criticism. Besides being the position of the government of Israel , other states that deny the Gaza genocide include supporters of Israel such as the United States , the United Kingdom , and Germany . ^ Cite error: The named reference Stanton was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference revisionists was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference DanielePeruginiAlbanese was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Sultany was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Shaw was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ McDoom 2025 , pp. 1–18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Akcam was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Trump Rejects Israel Is Committing Genocide In Gaza: 'They're In a War' \" . Latin Times . 4 August 2025 . Retrieved 3 March 2026 . ^ Farber, Matt Dathan (8 September 2025). \"Israel is not committing genocide in Gaza, government concludes\" . www.thetimes.com . Retrieved 3 March 2026 . ^ Talmon, Stefan (15 January 2024). \"Germany Rushes to Declare Intention to Intervene in the Genocide Case brought by South Africa Against Israel Before the International Court of Justice\" . GPIL - German Practice in International Law . Retrieved 3 March 2026 . ^ David Latona, Andreas Rinke (18 September 2025). \"Merz: Germany still to decide whether to back sanctions on Israel\" . Reuters . Retrieved 3 March 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Holocaust denial",
   "pageid": 65651,
   "revid_before": 1360799070,
   "revid_after": 1363659699,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-11T14:46:05Z",
   "lead_changed": true,
   "terms_delta": {
    "genocide": -1
   },
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holocaust_denial&oldid=1360799070",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holocaust_denial&oldid=1363659699",
   "lead_before": "Antisemitic conspiracy theory Holocaust denial is the negationist and antisemitic fringe view that Nazi Germany and its collaborators did not commit genocide against European Jews during World War II , ignoring overwhelming historical evidence to the contrary . Theories assert that the genocide of Jews is a fabrication or exaggeration. Holocaust denial includes making one or more of the following false claims: that Nazi Germany's \" Final Solution \" was aimed only at deporting Jews from the territory of the Third Reich and did not include their extermination; that Nazi authorities did not use extermination camps and gas chambers for the mass murder of Jews; that the actual number of Jews murdered is significantly lower than the accepted figure of approximately six million; and that the Holocaust is a hoax perpetrated by the Allies , Jews , or the Soviet Union . Holocaust denial has roots in postwar Europe, beginning with writers such as Maurice Bardèche and Paul Rassinier . In the United States, the Institute for Historical Review gave Holocaust denial a pseudo-scholarly platform and helped spread it globally. In the Islamic world , Holocaust denial has been used to delegitimize Israel ; deniers portray the Holocaust as a fabrication to justify the creation of a Jewish state. Iran is the leading state sponsor, embedding Holocaust denial into its official ideology through state-backed conferences and cartoon contests. In former Eastern Bloc countries, deniers do not deny the mass murder of Jews but deny the participation of their own nationals. The methodologies of Holocaust deniers are based on a predetermined conclusion that ignores historical evidence. Scholars use the term denial to describe the views and methodology of Holocaust deniers in order to distinguish them from legitimate historical revisionists , who challenge orthodox interpretations of history using established historical methodologies . Holocaust deniers generally do not accept denial as an appropriate description of their activities and use the euphemism revisionism instead. Holocaust denial is considered a serious societal problem in many places where it occurs. It is illegal in Canada, Israel, and many European countries , including Germany itself. In 2007 and 2022, the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolutions condemning Holocaust denial. ^ Cite error: The named reference antisemitic was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference conspiracy was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Coady, David (2019). \"Conspiracy Theories and Official Stories *\". Conspiracy Theories: The Philosophical Debate . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-315-25957-4 . Holocaust denial is one, unfortunately widespread, example of a conspiracy theory. ^ \"Holocaust Deniers and Public Misinformation\" . encyclopedia.ushmm.org . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Archived from the original on May 19, 2021 . Retrieved May 29, 2021 . ^ Cite error: The named reference definition was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference often claims was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Key elements was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Assertions was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference hoax was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Weitzman, Mark; Williams, Robert J.; Wald, James (2024). The Routledge history of antisemitism . The Routledge histories. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge . pp. 373– 376. ISBN 978-0-429-76751-7 . ^ Cite error: The named reference post-Soviet was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference predetermined was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference terminology was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Revisionist was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Antisemitic conspiracy theory Holocaust denial is the negationist and antisemitic fringe view that Nazi Germany and its collaborators did not commit genocide against European Jews during World War II , ignoring overwhelming historical evidence to the contrary . Deniers assert that the Holocaust is a fabrication or exaggeration, making one or more of the following false claims: that Nazi Germany's \" Final Solution \" was aimed only at deporting Jews from the Third Reich and did not include their extermination; that Nazi authorities did not use extermination camps and gas chambers for the mass murder of Jews; that the actual number of Jews murdered is significantly lower than the accepted figure of approximately six million; and that the Holocaust is a hoax perpetrated by the Allies , Jews , or the Soviet Union . Holocaust denial has roots in postwar Europe, beginning with writers such as Maurice Bardèche and Paul Rassinier . In the United States, the Institute for Historical Review gave Holocaust denial a pseudo-scholarly platform and helped spread it globally. In the Islamic world , Holocaust denial has been used to delegitimize Israel ; deniers portray the Holocaust as a fabrication to justify the creation of a Jewish state. Iran is the leading state sponsor, embedding Holocaust denial into its official ideology through state-backed conferences and cartoon contests. In former Eastern Bloc countries, deniers do not deny the mass murder of Jews but deny the participation of their own nationals. The methodologies of Holocaust deniers are based on a predetermined conclusion that ignores historical evidence. Scholars use the term denial to describe the views and methodology of Holocaust deniers in order to distinguish them from legitimate historical revisionists , who challenge orthodox interpretations of history using established historical methodologies . Holocaust deniers generally do not accept denial as an appropriate description of their activities and use the euphemism revisionism instead. Holocaust denial is considered a serious societal problem in many places where it occurs. It is illegal in Canada, Israel, and many European countries , including Germany itself. In 2007 and 2022, the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolutions condemning Holocaust denial. ^ Cite error: The named reference antisemitic was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference conspiracy was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Coady, David (2019). \"Conspiracy Theories and Official Stories *\". Conspiracy Theories: The Philosophical Debate . Routledge . ISBN 978-1-315-25957-4 . Holocaust denial is one, unfortunately widespread, example of a conspiracy theory. ^ \"Holocaust Deniers and Public Misinformation\" . encyclopedia.ushmm.org . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Archived from the original on May 19, 2021 . Retrieved May 29, 2021 . ^ Cite error: The named reference definition was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference often claims was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Key elements was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Assertions was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference hoax was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Weitzman, Mark; Williams, Robert J.; Wald, James (2024). The Routledge history of antisemitism . The Routledge histories. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge . pp. 373– 376. ISBN 978-0-429-76751-7 . ^ Cite error: The named reference post-Soviet was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference predetermined was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference terminology was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Revisionist was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Dhimmi",
   "pageid": 9090,
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   "lead_before": "Non-Muslims living in an Islamic state Political Islamic leadership Caliphate Majlis-ash-Shura Imamate Wilayat al-faqih Bay'ah Dhimmi Aman Family Criminal Etiquette Adab Gender segregation ( Purdah ) Mahram Honorifics Toilet Economic Hygiene Military Jihad Ghanimah Hudna Istijarah (asylum) Prisoners of war Social Haqq al-Nas ( The right(s) of the people ) Islamic studies v t e Dhimmī ( Arabic : ذمي ḏimmī , \"protected person\", IPA: [ˈðimmiː] , collectively أهل الذمة ʾahl aḏ-ḏimmah / dhimmah , \"protected people\") is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with certain legal protections and restrictions. The word literally means \"protected person\", referring to the state's obligation under sharia to protect the individual's life, property, as well as freedom of religion, in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the jizya tax, in contrast to the zakat , or obligatory alms, paid by the Muslim subjects. Dhimmi were forbidden to bear arms and so did not perform military service and other privileges assigned specifically to Muslims. They were required to pay the poll tax ( jizya ) but had certain rights under the laws of property, contract, and obligation. Dhimmis were subject to specific restrictions as well, which were codified in agreements like the Pact of Umar . These included prohibitions on building new places of worship, repairing existing ones in areas where Muslims lived, teaching children the Quran , and preventing relatives from converting to Islam. Depending on specific areas and periods, Dhimmis were also restricted in the professions they could engage in, limited in travelling outside of specific areas, owning property and were periodically exposed to forced conversions and massacres. They were also required to wear a yellow badge or other distinctive clothing, refrain from carrying weapons, and avoid riding on saddles. ^ Juan Eduardo Campo, ed. (2010). \"dhimmi\" . Encyclopedia of Islam . Infobase Publishing. pp. 194– 195. ISBN 978-1-4381-2696-8 . Dhimmis are non-Muslims who live within Islamdom and have a regulated and protected status. ... In the modern period, this term has generally has occasionally been resuscitated, but it is generally obsolete. ^ Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi (2016). The Laws of Islam (PDF) . Enlight Press. p. 470. ISBN 978-0994240989 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 August 2019 . Retrieved 22 December 2017 . ^ \"Definition of DHIMMI\" . www.merriam-webster.com . ^ Glenn, H. Patrick (2007). Legal Traditions of the World . Oxford University Press . pp. 218– 219. A Dhimmi is a non-Muslim subject of a state governed in accordance to sharia law. The term connotes an obligation of the state to protect the individual, including the individual's life, property, and freedom of religion and worship, and required loyalty to the empire, and a poll tax known as the jizya, which complemented the Islamic tax paid by the Muslim subjects, called Zakat. ^ H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World . Oxford University Press , 2007, p. 219. ^ The French scholar Gustave Le Bon (the author of La civilisation des Arabes ) writes \"that despite the fact that the incidence of taxation fell more heavily on a Muslim than a non-Muslim, the non-Muslim was free to enjoy equally well with every Muslim all the privileges afforded to the citizens of the state. The only privilege that was reserved for the Muslims was the seat of the caliphate, and this, because of certain religious functions attached to it, which could not naturally be discharged by a non-Muslim.\" Mun'im Sirry (2014), Scriptural Polemics: The Qur'an and Other Religions , p. 179. Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0199359363 . ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (2007). The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists . HarperOne . p. 204. ISBN 978-0061189036 . According to the dhimma status system, non-Muslims must pay a poll tax in return for Muslim protection and the privilege of living in Muslim territory. Per this system, non-Muslims are exempt from military service, but they are excluded from occupying high positions that involve dealing with high state interests, like being the president or prime minister of the country. In Islamic history, non-Muslims did occupy high positions, especially in matters that related to fiscal policies or tax collection. ^ Berend, Nora; Hameau-Masset, Youna; Nemo-Pekelman, Capucine; Tolan, John, eds. (2017). Religious Minorities in Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Law (5th–15th Centuries) . Religion and law in Medieval Christian and Muslim Societies. Vol. 8. Brepols Publishers. pp. 58– 59. doi : 10.1484/M.RELMIN-EB.5.109274 . ISBN 978-2-503-56571-2 . ^ Tangi, Myriam (28 March 2019). \"A Memory of the Last Jews of Yemen\" . The Librarians .",
   "lead_after": "Non-Muslims living in an Islamic state Political Islamic leadership Caliphate Majlis-ash-Shura Imamate Wilayat al-faqih Bay'ah Dhimmi Aman Family Criminal Etiquette Adab Gender segregation ( Purdah ) Mahram Honorifics Toilet Economic Hygiene Military Jihad Ghanimah Hudna Istijarah (asylum) Prisoners of war Social Haqq al-Nas ( The right(s) of the people ) Islamic studies v t e Dhimmī ( Arabic : ذمي ḏimmī , \"protected person\", IPA: [ˈðimmiː] , collectively أهل الذمة ʾahl aḏ-ḏimmah / dhimmah , \"protected people\") is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with certain legal protections and restrictions. The word literally means \"protected person\", referring to the state's obligation under sharia to protect the individual's life, property, as well as freedom of religion, in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the jizya tax, in contrast to the zakat , or obligatory alms, paid by the Muslim subjects. Dhimmi were forbidden to bear arms and so did not perform military service and other privileges assigned specifically to Muslims. They were required to pay the poll tax ( jizya ) but had certain rights under the laws of property, contract, and obligation. Dhimmis were subject to specific restrictions as well, which were codified in agreements like the Pact of Umar . These included prohibitions on building new places of worship, repairing existing ones in areas where Muslims lived, teaching children the Quran , and preventing relatives from converting to Islam. Depending on specific areas and periods, Dhimmis were also restricted in the professions they could engage in, limited in travelling outside of specific areas, owning property and were periodically exposed to forced conversions and massacres. They were also required to wear a yellow badge or other distinctive clothing, refrain from carrying weapons, and avoid riding on saddles. ^ Juan Eduardo Campo, ed. (2010). \"dhimmi\" . Encyclopedia of Islam . Infobase Publishing. pp. 194– 195. ISBN 978-1-4381-2696-8 . Dhimmis are non-Muslims who live within Islamdom and have a regulated and protected status. ... In the modern period, this term has generally has occasionally been resuscitated, but it is generally obsolete. ^ Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi (2016). The Laws of Islam (PDF) . Enlight Press. p. 470. ISBN 978-0994240989 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 August 2019 . Retrieved 22 December 2017 . ^ \"Definition of DHIMMI\" . www.merriam-webster.com . ^ Glenn, H. Patrick (2007). Legal Traditions of the World . Oxford University Press . pp. 218– 219. A Dhimmi is a non-Muslim subject of a state governed in accordance to sharia law. The term connotes an obligation of the state to protect the individual, including the individual's life, property, and freedom of religion and worship, and required loyalty to the empire, and a poll tax known as the jizya, which complemented the Islamic tax paid by the Muslim subjects, called Zakat. ^ H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World . Oxford University Press , 2007, p. 219. ^ The French scholar Gustave Le Bon (the author of La civilisation des Arabes ) writes \"that despite the fact that the incidence of taxation fell more heavily on a Muslim than a non-Muslim, the non-Muslim was free to enjoy equally well with every Muslim all the privileges afforded to the citizens of the state. The only privilege that was reserved for the Muslims was the seat of the caliphate, and this, because of certain religious functions attached to it, which could not naturally be discharged by a non-Muslim.\" Mun'im Sirry (2014), Scriptural Polemics: The Qur'an and Other Religions , p. 179. Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0199359363 . ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (2007). The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists . HarperOne . p. 204. ISBN 978-0061189036 . According to the dhimma status system, non-Muslims must pay a poll tax in return for Muslim protection and the privilege of living in Muslim territory. Per this system, non-Muslims are exempt from military service, but they are excluded from occupying high positions that involve dealing with high state interests, like being the president or prime minister of the country. In Islamic history, non-Muslims did occupy high positions, especially in matters that related to fiscal policies or tax collection. ^ Berend, Nora; Hameau-Masset, Youna; Nemo-Pekelman, Capucine; Tolan, John, eds. (2017). Religious Minorities in Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Law (5th–15th Centuries) . Religion and law in Medieval Christian and Muslim Societies. Vol. 8. Brepols Publishers. pp. 58– 59. doi : 10.1484/M.RELMIN-EB.5.109274 . ISBN 978-2-503-56571-2 . ^ Tangi, Myriam (28 March 2019). \"A Memory of the Last Jews of Yemen\" . The Librarians ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Jizya",
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   "lead_before": "Islamic tax on non-Muslims This article is about the non-Muslim tax. For the land tax, see Kharaj . Collection Economic nexus in the United States Revenue service Revenue stamp Tax assessment Taxable income Tax lien Tax refund Tax shield Tax residence Tax preparation Tax protester Tax investigation Tax collector Tax withholding Private tax collection Noncompliance Types Direct Indirect Per unit Ad valorem Aviation Airport improvement Landing Solidarity Capital gains Exit Consumption Departure Hotel Sales Stamp Television Tourist Value-added Digital goods Dividend Environmental tax Carbon Eco-tariff Landfill Natural resources consumption Severance Steering Stumpage Excise Alcohol Fat Meat Sin Sugary drink Tobacco General Georgist Gift Gross receipts Hidden Hypothecated Income Inheritance (estate) Internet tax Land value Luxury Mining On childlessness Payroll Pigouvian Property Resource rent Single Stealth Surtax Turnover Use User charge / fee Congestion Fuel Road / GNSS Toll Vehicle miles traveled Corporate profit Excess profits Windfall Negative (income) Wealth International Financial transaction tax ATTAC Currency transaction tax European Union Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (CCCTB) Global minimum corporate tax rate Robin Hood tax Tobin tax Spahn tax Tax equalization Tax treaty Exchange of Information Permanent establishment Transfer pricing European Union FTT Foreign revenue rule Trade Custom Duty Tariff Import Export Tariff war Free trade Free-trade zone Trade agreement ATA Carnet Research Religious Church tax Eight per thousand Teind Tithe Fiscus Judaicus Leibzoll Temple tax Tolerance tax Jizya Kharaj Khums Nisab Zakat By country Business portal Money portal v t e Jizya ( Arabic : جِزْيَة , romanized : jizyah , [ˈd͡ʒɪz.jæ] ), is a type of taxation levied on non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Islamic law . The Quran and hadiths mention jizya without specifying its rate or amount, and the application of jizya varied in the course of Islamic history . However, scholars largely agree that early Muslim rulers adapted some of the existing systems of taxation and modified them according to Islamic religious law. Historically, the jizya tax has been understood in Islam as a fee for protection provided by the Muslim ruler to non-Muslims, for the exemption from military service for non-Muslims, for the permission to practice a non-Muslim faith with some communal autonomy in a Muslim state, and as material proof of the non-Muslims' allegiance to the Muslim state and its laws. The majority of Muslim jurists required adult, free, sane males among the dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, elders , handicapped , the ill, the insane , monks , hermits , slaves , and musta'mins —non-Muslim foreigners who only temporarily reside in Muslim lands. However, Ibn Hazm required that anyone who had reached puberty pay jizya. Islamic Regimes allowed dhimmis to serve in Muslim armies. Those who chose to join military service were also exempted from payment; some Muslim scholars claim that some Islamic rulers exempted those who could not afford to pay from the Jizya. Together with kharāj , a term that was sometimes used interchangeably with jizya, taxes levied on non-Muslim subjects were among the main sources of revenues collected by some Islamic polities, such as the Ottoman Empire and Indian Muslim Sultanates . Jizya rate was usually a fixed annual amount depending on the financial capability of the payer. Sources comparing taxes levied on Muslims and jizya differ as to their relative burden depending on time, place, specific taxes under consideration, and other factors. The term appears in the Quran referring to a tax or tribute from People of the Book , specifically Jews and Christians. Followers of other religions like Zoroastrians and Hindus too were later integrated into the category of dhimmis and required to pay jizya. In the Indian subcontinent the practice stopped by the 18th century with Muslim rulers losing their kingdoms to the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company. It almost vanished during the 20th century with the disappearance of Islamic states and the spread of religious tolerance . The tax is no longer imposed by nation states in the Islamic world, although there are reported cases of organizations such as the Pakistani Taliban and ISIS attempting to revive the practice. ^ Cite error: The named reference Britannica-Afsaruddin was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Abdel-Haleem, Muhammad (2010). Understanding the Qur'ān: Themes and Style . I. B. Tauris & Co Ltd . pp. 70 , 79. ISBN 978-1845117894 . ^ Sabet, Amr (2006), The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 24:4, Oxford; pp. 99–100. ^ Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan; et al., eds. (2013). The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press . p. 283. ISBN 978-0691134840 . Free adult males who were not afflicted by any physical or mental illness were required to pay the jizya . Women, children, handicapped, the mentally ill, the elderly, and slaves were exempt, as were all travelers and foreigners who did not settle in Muslim lands. [...] As Islam spread, previous structures of taxation were replaced by the Islamic system, but Muslim leaders often adopted practices of the previous regimes in the application and collection of taxes. ^ Bravmann 2009 , pp. 199–201, 204–5, 207–12. ^ Mohammad, Gharipour (2014). Sacred Precincts: The Religious Architecture of Non-Muslim Communities Across the Islamic World . BRILL . p. XV. ISBN 978-9004280229 . Sources indicate that the taxation system of early Islam was not necessarily an innovation of Muslims; it appears that 'Umar adopted the same tax system as was common at the time of the conquest of that territory. The land tax or kharaj was an adapted version of the tax system used in Sassanid Persia. In Syria, 'Umar followed the Byzantine system of collecting two taxes based on the account of lands and heads. ^ Shah 2008 , p. 20. \"Jizia was not a specific Islamic invention but was the norm of the time. \"Several of the early caliphs made peace treaties with the Byzantine Empire some of which even required them to pay tribute [Jizia] to the Byzantines\" (Streusand, 1997).\" ^ Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith . Constable & Robinson Ltd . p. 59 ff. There is evidence to show that the Arab conquerors left unchanged the fiscal system that they found prevailing in the lands they conquered from the Byzantines, and that the explanation of jizyah as a capitation-tax is an invention of later jurists, ignorant of the true condition of affairs in the early days of Islam. (Caetani, vol. iv. p. 610 (§ 231); vol. v. p. 449.) H.Lammens: Ziād ibn Abīhi. (Rivista degli Studi Orientali, vol. iv. p. 215.) ( online ) ^ Cite error: The named reference anveremon was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith . Constable & Robinson Ltd . pp. 60 –1. This tax was not imposed on the Christians, as some would have us think, as a penalty for their refusal to accept the Muslim faith, but was paid by them in common with the other dh immīs or non-Muslim subjects of the state whose religion precluded them from serving in the army, in return for the protection secured for them by the arms of the Musalmans. ^ Esposito 1998 , p. 34. \"They replaced the conquered countries, indigenous rulers and armies, but preserved much of their government, bureaucracy, and culture. For many in the conquered territories, it was no more than an exchange of masters, one that brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare. Local communities were free to continue to follow their own way of life in internal, domestic affairs. In many ways, local populations found Muslim rule more flexible and tolerant than that of Byzantium and Persia. Religious communities were free to practice their faith to worship and be governed by their religious leaders and laws in such areas as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. In exchange, they were required to pay tribute, a poll tax ( jizya ) that entitled them to Muslim protection from outside aggression and exempted them from military service. Thus, they were called the \"protected ones\" ( dhimmi ). In effect, this often meant lower taxes, greater local autonomy, rule by fellow Semites with closer linguistic and cultural ties than the hellenized, Greco-Roman élites of Byzantium, and greater religious freedom for Jews and indigenous Christians.\" ^ M. Zawati, Hilmi (2002). Is Jihād a Just War?: War, Peace, and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law (Studies in religion & society) . Edwin Mellen Press . pp. 63–4 . ISBN 978-0773473041 . ^ Wael, B. Hallaq (2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations . Cambridge University Press . pp. 332– 3. ISBN 978-0-521-86147-2 . ^ Ellethy 2014 , p. 181. \"[...] the insignificant amount of this yearly tax, the fact that it was progressive, that elders, poor people, handicapped, women, children, monks and hermits were exempted, leave no doubt about exploitation or persecution of those who did not accept Islam. Comparing its amount to the obligatory zaka which an ex-dhimmi should give to the Muslim state in case he converts to Islam dismisses the claim that its aim was forced conversions to Islam.\" ^ Alshech, Eli (2003). \"Islamic Law, Practice, and Legal Doctrine: Exempting the Poor from the Jizya under the Ayyubids (1171–1250)\". Islamic Law and Society . 10 (3): 348– 375. doi : 10.1163/156851903770227584 . ...jurists divided the dhimma community into two major groups. The first group consists of all adult, free, sane males among the dhimma community, while the second includes all other dhimmas (i.e., women, slaves, minors, and the insane). Jurists generally agree that members of the second group are to be granted a \"blanket\" exemption from jizya payment. ^ Rispler-Chaim, Vardit (2007). Disability in Islamic law . Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. p. 44 . ISBN 978-1402050527 . The Hanbali position is that boys, women, the mentally insane, the zamin, and the blind are exempt from paying jizya . This view is supposedly shared by the Hanafis, Shafi'is, and Malikis. ^ Majid Khadduri , War and Peace in the Law of Islam , pp. 192–3. ^ \"ص415 - كتاب المحلى بالآثار - مسألة الجزية لازمة للحر والعبد والذكر والأنثى - المكتبة الشاملة\" . ^ Mapel, D.R. and Nardin, T., eds. (1999), International Society: Diverse Ethical Perspectives , p. 231. Princeton University Press . ISBN 9780691049724 . Quote: \" Jizya was levied upon dhimmis in compensation for their exemption from military service in the Muslim forces. If dhimmis joined Muslims in their mutual defense against an outside aggressor, the jizya was not levied.\" ^ Cite error: The named reference Imara was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference ArnoldPoI was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Shah 2008 , pp. 19–20. ^ Ghazi, Kalin & Kamali 2013 , pp. 240–1. ^ Abdel-Haleem 2012 , pp. 75–6, 77. ^ Morony, Michael (2005). Iraq after the Muslim conquest . NJ, USA: Gorgias Press. pp. 109, 99– 134. ISBN 978-1-59333-315-7 . ^ Levy, Reuben (2002). The social structure of Islam . London New York: Routledge. pp. 310– 1. ISBN 978-0-415-20910-6 . \"There is little doubt that in origin kharaj and jizya were interchangeable terms. In the Arabic papyri of the first century AH only jizya is mentioned, with the general meaning of tribute, while later the poll tax could be called kharaj ala ru'us ahl al-dhimma , i.e. a tax on the heads of protected peoples. The narrower meaning of the word is brought out by Abu Hanifa , \"No individual can be liable at the same time to the zakat and to kharaj.\" [emphasis added] ^ Satish Chandra (1969), Jizyah and the State in India during the 17th Century , Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 322–40, quote=\"Although kharaj and jizyah were sometimes treated as synonyms, a number of fourteenth century theological tracts treat them as separate\" ^ Peri, Oded (1990). \"The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem\". In Gilbar, Gad (ed.). Ottoman Palestine, 1800–1914 : Studies in economic and social history . Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287. ISBN 978-90-04-07785-0 . the jizya was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole. ^ Abu Khalil, Shawkiy (2006). al-Islām fī Qafaṣ al-ʾIttihām الإسلام في قفص الإتهام (in Arabic). Dār al-Fikr. p. 149. ISBN 978-1575470047 . Quote: (Translation) \"The amount of jizya is determined in consideration of their economic status, so that more is taken from the prosperous, less from the middle [class], and a very small amount from the poor ( fuqaraʾ ). Those who do not have any means of livelihood or depend on support of others are exempted from paying the jizya .\" ( online ) ^ Ghazi, Kalin & Kamali 2013 , pp. 82–3. ^ Abu Zahra, Muhammad . Zahrat al-Tafāsīr زهرة التفاسير (in Arabic). Cairo : Dār al-Fikr al-ʿArabī. pp. 3277– 8. Quote: (Translation) \"And the money that the dhimmī gives is called jizya : [...] and [it is so named] because it is in return for the protection that they are guaranteed by the Islamic [community], and instead of rendering military service, and since it is [also] in return for what is spent on the poor amongst the dhimmī community ( ahl al-dhimma ) as ʾImām ʿUmar used to do. [...] and Islam gave the right of equality between all of those who are under its rule, indeed, the jizya that is demanded from the dhimmī corresponds to the financial obligations that are compulsory on the Muslim, so he is obliged [to purify] his wealth [through] zakat , and he is required to pay sadaqat and nudhur , and he is duty-bound to give kaffarat , as well as other things. And if all that is taken from the Muslim was calculated, it would become clear that it isn't less than what is taken by way of jizya , if it isn't more. And as we have mentioned earlier, the state spends on the poor amongst the dhimmī community, and it is narrated that ʿUmar – May God Almighty be pleased with him – found an elderly Jew begging, so he asked him: 'Who are you, old man ( shaykh )?' He said, 'I am a man from the dhimma community.' So ʿUmar said to him: 'We have not done justice to you in taking from you when you were young and forsaking you in your old age', so ʿUmar gave him a regular pension from the public treasury ( Bayt al-Māl ), and he then said to his servant: \"Search for him and those like him, and give them out from the public treasury.\"\" ^ Long, Matthew (2012). \"Jizya\" . The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought . Princeton University Press . pp. 283– 4. ISBN 978-0691134840 . ^ Werner Ende; Udo Steinbach (2010). Islam in the World Today . Cornell University Press . p. 738. ISBN 978-0801445712 . ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (2007). The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists . HarperOne . p. 214. ISBN 978-0061189036 . ^ Coming home to Orakzai ABDUL SAMI PARACHA, Dawn.com (JAN 05, 2010). \"In December 2008, Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan enforced a strict version of Islamic law in divergence of enviously guarded distinctive tribal culture in Orakzai Agency. Less than a month a later, a decree for jizya was imposed and had to be paid by all minorities if they want protection against local criminal gangs or that they had to convert to Islam.\" ^ Aryn Baker (Feb 28, 2014). \"Al-Qaeda Rebels in Syria Tell Christians to Pay Up or Die\" . Time . In a statement posted to Jihadi websites and signed by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the self-designated emir of the future Islamic caliphate of Raqqa, as well as the founder of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria [ISIS] rebel brigade, Christians are urged to pay a tax in order to continue living under ISIS's protection.",
   "lead_after": "Islamic tax on non-Muslims This article is about the non-Muslim tax. For the land tax, see Kharaj . Collection Economic nexus in the United States Revenue service Revenue stamp Tax assessment Taxable income Tax lien Tax refund Tax shield Tax residence Tax preparation Tax protester Tax investigation Tax collector Tax withholding Private tax collection Noncompliance Types Direct Indirect Per unit Ad valorem Aviation Airport improvement Landing Solidarity Capital gains Exit Consumption Departure Hotel Sales Stamp Television Tourist Value-added Digital goods Dividend Environmental tax Carbon Eco-tariff Landfill Natural resources consumption Severance Steering Stumpage Excise Alcohol Fat Meat Sin Sugary drink Tobacco General Georgist Gift Gross receipts Hidden Hypothecated Income Inheritance (estate) Internet tax Land value Luxury Mining On childlessness Payroll Pigouvian Property Resource rent Single Stealth Surtax Turnover Use User charge / fee Congestion Fuel Road / GNSS Toll Vehicle miles traveled Corporate profit Excess profits Windfall Negative (income) Wealth International Financial transaction tax ATTAC Currency transaction tax European Union Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (CCCTB) Global minimum corporate tax rate Robin Hood tax Tobin tax Spahn tax Tax equalization Tax treaty Exchange of Information Permanent establishment Transfer pricing European Union FTT Foreign revenue rule Trade Custom Duty Tariff Import Export Tariff war Free trade Free-trade zone Trade agreement ATA Carnet Research Religious Church tax Eight per thousand Teind Tithe Fiscus Judaicus Leibzoll Temple tax Tolerance tax Jizya Kharaj Khums Nisab Zakat By country Business portal Money portal v t e Jizya ( Arabic : جِزْيَة , romanized : jizyah , [ˈd͡ʒɪz.jæ] ), is a type of taxation levied on non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Islamic law . The Quran and hadiths mention jizya without any limiting percentage rate or amount, and the application of jizya varied in the course of Islamic history . However, scholars largely agree that early Muslim rulers adapted some of the existing systems of taxation and modified them according to Islamic religious law. Historically, the jizya tax has been understood in Islam as a fee for protection provided by the Muslim ruler to non-Muslims, for the exemption from military service for non-Muslims, for the permission to practice a non-Muslim faith with some communal autonomy in a Muslim state, and as material proof of the non-Muslims' allegiance to the Muslim state and its laws. The majority of Muslim jurists required adult, free, sane males among the dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, elders , handicapped , the ill, the insane , monks , hermits , slaves , and musta'mins —non-Muslim foreigners who only temporarily reside in Muslim lands. However, Ibn Hazm required that anyone who had reached puberty pay jizya. Islamic Regimes allowed dhimmis to serve in Muslim armies. Those who chose to join military service were also exempted from payment; some Muslim scholars claim that some Islamic rulers exempted those who could not afford to pay from the Jizya. Together with kharāj , a term that was sometimes used interchangeably with jizya, taxes levied on non-Muslim subjects were among the main sources of revenues collected by some Islamic polities, such as the Ottoman Empire and Indian Muslim Sultanates . Jizya rate was usually a fixed annual amount depending on the financial capability of the payer. Sources comparing taxes levied on Muslims and jizya differ as to their relative burden depending on time, place, specific taxes under consideration, and other factors. The term appears in the Quran referring to a tax or tribute from People of the Book , specifically Jews and Christians. Followers of other religions like Zoroastrians and Hindus too were later integrated into the category of dhimmis and required to pay jizya. In the Indian subcontinent the practice stopped by the 18th century with Muslim rulers losing their kingdoms to the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company. It almost vanished during the 20th century with the disappearance of Islamic states and the spread of religious tolerance . The tax is no longer imposed by nation states in the Islamic world, although there are reported cases of organizations such as the Pakistani Taliban and ISIS attempting to revive the practice. ^ Cite error: The named reference Britannica-Afsaruddin was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Abdel-Haleem, Muhammad (2010). Understanding the Qur'ān: Themes and Style . I. B. Tauris & Co Ltd . pp. 70 , 79. ISBN 978-1845117894 . ^ Sabet, Amr (2006), The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 24:4, Oxford; pp. 99–100. ^ Bowering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan; et al., eds. (2013). The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press . p. 283. ISBN 978-0691134840 . Free adult males who were not afflicted by any physical or mental illness were required to pay the jizya . Women, children, handicapped, the mentally ill, the elderly, and slaves were exempt, as were all travelers and foreigners who did not settle in Muslim lands. [...] As Islam spread, previous structures of taxation were replaced by the Islamic system, but Muslim leaders often adopted practices of the previous regimes in the application and collection of taxes. ^ Bravmann 2009 , pp. 199–201, 204–5, 207–12. ^ Mohammad, Gharipour (2014). Sacred Precincts: The Religious Architecture of Non-Muslim Communities Across the Islamic World . BRILL . p. XV. ISBN 978-9004280229 . Sources indicate that the taxation system of early Islam was not necessarily an innovation of Muslims; it appears that 'Umar adopted the same tax system as was common at the time of the conquest of that territory. The land tax or kharaj was an adapted version of the tax system used in Sassanid Persia. In Syria, 'Umar followed the Byzantine system of collecting two taxes based on the account of lands and heads. ^ Shah 2008 , p. 20. \"Jizia was not a specific Islamic invention but was the norm of the time. \"Several of the early caliphs made peace treaties with the Byzantine Empire some of which even required them to pay tribute [Jizia] to the Byzantines\" (Streusand, 1997).\" ^ Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith . Constable & Robinson Ltd . p. 59 ff. There is evidence to show that the Arab conquerors left unchanged the fiscal system that they found prevailing in the lands they conquered from the Byzantines, and that the explanation of jizyah as a capitation-tax is an invention of later jurists, ignorant of the true condition of affairs in the early days of Islam. (Caetani, vol. iv. p. 610 (§ 231); vol. v. p. 449.) H.Lammens: Ziād ibn Abīhi. (Rivista degli Studi Orientali, vol. iv. p. 215.) ( online ) ^ Cite error: The named reference anveremon was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith . Constable & Robinson Ltd . pp. 60 –1. This tax was not imposed on the Christians, as some would have us think, as a penalty for their refusal to accept the Muslim faith, but was paid by them in common with the other dh immīs or non-Muslim subjects of the state whose religion precluded them from serving in the army, in return for the protection secured for them by the arms of the Musalmans. ^ Esposito 1998 , p. 34. \"They replaced the conquered countries, indigenous rulers and armies, but preserved much of their government, bureaucracy, and culture. For many in the conquered territories, it was no more than an exchange of masters, one that brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare. Local communities were free to continue to follow their own way of life in internal, domestic affairs. In many ways, local populations found Muslim rule more flexible and tolerant than that of Byzantium and Persia. Religious communities were free to practice their faith to worship and be governed by their religious leaders and laws in such areas as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. In exchange, they were required to pay tribute, a poll tax ( jizya ) that entitled them to Muslim protection from outside aggression and exempted them from military service. Thus, they were called the \"protected ones\" ( dhimmi ). In effect, this often meant lower taxes, greater local autonomy, rule by fellow Semites with closer linguistic and cultural ties than the hellenized, Greco-Roman élites of Byzantium, and greater religious freedom for Jews and indigenous Christians.\" ^ M. Zawati, Hilmi (2002). Is Jihād a Just War?: War, Peace, and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law (Studies in religion & society) . Edwin Mellen Press . pp. 63–4 . ISBN 978-0773473041 . ^ Wael, B. Hallaq (2009). Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations . Cambridge University Press . pp. 332– 3. ISBN 978-0-521-86147-2 . ^ Ellethy 2014 , p. 181. \"[...] the insignificant amount of this yearly tax, the fact that it was progressive, that elders, poor people, handicapped, women, children, monks and hermits were exempted, leave no doubt about exploitation or persecution of those who did not accept Islam. Comparing its amount to the obligatory zaka which an ex-dhimmi should give to the Muslim state in case he converts to Islam dismisses the claim that its aim was forced conversions to Islam.\" ^ Alshech, Eli (2003). \"Islamic Law, Practice, and Legal Doctrine: Exempting the Poor from the Jizya under the Ayyubids (1171–1250)\". Islamic Law and Society . 10 (3): 348– 375. doi : 10.1163/156851903770227584 . ...jurists divided the dhimma community into two major groups. The first group consists of all adult, free, sane males among the dhimma community, while the second includes all other dhimmas (i.e., women, slaves, minors, and the insane). Jurists generally agree that members of the second group are to be granted a \"blanket\" exemption from jizya payment. ^ Rispler-Chaim, Vardit (2007). Disability in Islamic law . Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. p. 44 . ISBN 978-1402050527 . The Hanbali position is that boys, women, the mentally insane, the zamin, and the blind are exempt from paying jizya . This view is supposedly shared by the Hanafis, Shafi'is, and Malikis. ^ Majid Khadduri , War and Peace in the Law of Islam , pp. 192–3. ^ \"ص415 - كتاب المحلى بالآثار - مسألة الجزية لازمة للحر والعبد والذكر والأنثى - المكتبة الشاملة\" . ^ Mapel, D.R. and Nardin, T., eds. (1999), International Society: Diverse Ethical Perspectives , p. 231. Princeton University Press . ISBN 9780691049724 . Quote: \" Jizya was levied upon dhimmis in compensation for their exemption from military service in the Muslim forces. If dhimmis joined Muslims in their mutual defense against an outside aggressor, the jizya was not levied.\" ^ Cite error: The named reference Imara was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference ArnoldPoI was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Shah 2008 , pp. 19–20. ^ Ghazi, Kalin & Kamali 2013 , pp. 240–1. ^ Abdel-Haleem 2012 , pp. 75–6, 77. ^ Morony, Michael (2005). Iraq after the Muslim conquest . NJ, USA: Gorgias Press. pp. 109, 99– 134. ISBN 978-1-59333-315-7 . ^ Levy, Reuben (2002). The social structure of Islam . London New York: Routledge. pp. 310– 1. ISBN 978-0-415-20910-6 . \"There is little doubt that in origin kharaj and jizya were interchangeable terms. In the Arabic papyri of the first century AH only jizya is mentioned, with the general meaning of tribute, while later the poll tax could be called kharaj ala ru'us ahl al-dhimma , i.e. a tax on the heads of protected peoples. The narrower meaning of the word is brought out by Abu Hanifa , \"No individual can be liable at the same time to the zakat and to kharaj.\" [emphasis added] ^ Satish Chandra (1969), Jizyah and the State in India during the 17th Century , Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 322–40, quote=\"Although kharaj and jizyah were sometimes treated as synonyms, a number of fourteenth century theological tracts treat them as separate\" ^ Peri, Oded (1990). \"The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem\". In Gilbar, Gad (ed.). Ottoman Palestine, 1800–1914 : Studies in economic and social history . Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287. ISBN 978-90-04-07785-0 . the jizya was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole. ^ Abu Khalil, Shawkiy (2006). al-Islām fī Qafaṣ al-ʾIttihām الإسلام في قفص الإتهام (in Arabic). Dār al-Fikr. p. 149. ISBN 978-1575470047 . Quote: (Translation) \"The amount of jizya is determined in consideration of their economic status, so that more is taken from the prosperous, less from the middle [class], and a very small amount from the poor ( fuqaraʾ ). Those who do not have any means of livelihood or depend on support of others are exempted from paying the jizya .\" ( online ) ^ Ghazi, Kalin & Kamali 2013 , pp. 82–3. ^ Abu Zahra, Muhammad . Zahrat al-Tafāsīr زهرة التفاسير (in Arabic). Cairo : Dār al-Fikr al-ʿArabī. pp. 3277– 8. Quote: (Translation) \"And the money that the dhimmī gives is called jizya : [...] and [it is so named] because it is in return for the protection that they are guaranteed by the Islamic [community], and instead of rendering military service, and since it is [also] in return for what is spent on the poor amongst the dhimmī community ( ahl al-dhimma ) as ʾImām ʿUmar used to do. [...] and Islam gave the right of equality between all of those who are under its rule, indeed, the jizya that is demanded from the dhimmī corresponds to the financial obligations that are compulsory on the Muslim, so he is obliged [to purify] his wealth [through] zakat , and he is required to pay sadaqat and nudhur , and he is duty-bound to give kaffarat , as well as other things. And if all that is taken from the Muslim was calculated, it would become clear that it isn't less than what is taken by way of jizya , if it isn't more. And as we have mentioned earlier, the state spends on the poor amongst the dhimmī community, and it is narrated that ʿUmar – May God Almighty be pleased with him – found an elderly Jew begging, so he asked him: 'Who are you, old man ( shaykh )?' He said, 'I am a man from the dhimma community.' So ʿUmar said to him: 'We have not done justice to you in taking from you when you were young and forsaking you in your old age', so ʿUmar gave him a regular pension from the public treasury ( Bayt al-Māl ), and he then said to his servant: \"Search for him and those like him, and give them out from the public treasury.\"\" ^ Long, Matthew (2012). \"Jizya\" . The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought . Princeton University Press . pp. 283– 4. ISBN 978-0691134840 . ^ Werner Ende; Udo Steinbach (2010). Islam in the World Today . Cornell University Press . p. 738. ISBN 978-0801445712 . ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (2007). The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists . HarperOne . p. 214. ISBN 978-0061189036 . ^ Coming home to Orakzai ABDUL SAMI PARACHA, Dawn.com (JAN 05, 2010). \"In December 2008, Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan enforced a strict version of Islamic law in divergence of enviously guarded distinctive tribal culture in Orakzai Agency. Less than a month a later, a decree for jizya was imposed and had to be paid by all minorities if they want protection against local criminal gangs or that they had to convert to Islam.\" ^ Aryn Baker (Feb 28, 2014). \"Al-Qaeda Rebels in Syria Tell Christians to Pay Up or Die\" . Time . In a statement posted to Jihadi websites and signed by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the self-designated emir of the future Islamic caliphate of Raqqa, as well as the founder of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria [ISIS] rebel brigade, Christians are urged to pay a tax in order to continue living under ISIS's protection."
  },
  {
   "title": "Antisemitism in Islam",
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   "lead_before": "There is considerable debate about the nature of antisemitism in Islam , including Muslim attitudes towards Jews , Islamic teachings on Jews and Judaism , and the treatment of Jews in Islamic societies throughout the history of Islam . Islamic literary sources have both described Jewish groups in negative terms and called for acceptance of them. Some of these descriptions overlap with Islamic remarks on non-Muslim religious groups in general. With the rise of Islam in Arabia in the 7th century CE and its subsequent spread during the early Muslim conquests , Jews, alongside a number of other peoples , became subject to the rule of Islamic polities . Their quality of life under Muslim rule varied considerably in different periods, as did the attitudes of the rulers, government officials, the clergy , and the general population towards Jews, ranging from tolerance to persecution . An antisemitic trope commonly found in some Islamic (and Christian) discourse is the accusation of Jews as the \"killers of prophets\", finding justification in some depictions of the Banu Israil (Islamic name for the Israelites ) made in the Quran . ^ Cite error: The named reference Laqueur192 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference kramer was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Schweitzer266 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"What is Islam's view about Jews?\" . ^ Silverman, Eric (2013). A Cultural History of Jewish Dress . London and New York : Bloomsbury Academic . pp. 47– 48. ISBN 978-1-84520-513-3 . ^ Stillman, Norman A. (1998) [1979]. \"Under the New Order\" . The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book . Philadelphia : Jewish Publication Society . pp. 22– 28. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7 . ^ Runciman, Steven (1987) [1951]. \"The Reign of Antichrist\" . A History of the Crusades, Volume 1: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 20– 37. ISBN 978-0-521-34770-9 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Reynolds 2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Qatari official: Jews are murderers of prophets; October 7 is only a 'prelude' \" . The Jerusalem Post . 23 April 2024. ISSN 0792-822X . Retrieved 24 April 2024 .",
   "lead_after": "There is considerable debate about the nature of antisemitism in Islam , including Muslim attitudes towards Jews , Islamic teachings on Jews and Judaism , and the treatment of Jews in Islamic societies throughout the history of Islam . Islamic literary sources have both described Jewish groups in negative terms and called for acceptance of them. Some of these descriptions overlap with Islamic remarks on non-Muslim religious groups in general. With the rise of Islam in Arabia in the 7th century CE and its subsequent spread during the early Muslim conquests , Jews, (alongside Christians, Zoroastrians and Berbers) became subject to the rule of Islamic polities . Their quality of life under Muslim rule varied considerably in different periods, as did the attitudes of the rulers, government officials, the clergy , and the general population towards Jews, ranging from tolerance to persecution . An antisemitic trope commonly found in some Islamic (and Christian) discourse is the accusation of Jews as the \"killers of prophets\", finding justification in some depictions of the Banu Israil (Islamic name for the Israelites ) made in the Quran . ^ Cite error: The named reference Laqueur192 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference kramer was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Schweitzer266 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"What is Islam's view about Jews?\" . ^ Silverman, Eric (2013). A Cultural History of Jewish Dress . London and New York : Bloomsbury Academic . pp. 47– 48. ISBN 978-1-84520-513-3 . ^ Stillman, Norman A. (1998) [1979]. \"Under the New Order\" . The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book . Philadelphia : Jewish Publication Society . pp. 22– 28. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7 . ^ Runciman, Steven (1987) [1951]. \"The Reign of Antichrist\" . A History of the Crusades, Volume 1: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 20– 37. ISBN 978-0-521-34770-9 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Reynolds 2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Qatari official: Jews are murderers of prophets; October 7 is only a 'prelude' \" . The Jerusalem Post . 23 April 2024. ISSN 0792-822X . Retrieved 24 April 2024 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Sabra and Shatila massacre",
   "pageid": 52268,
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   "lead_before": "1982 mass murder of civilians in Beirut, Lebanon This article is about the 1982 mass murder in Beirut, Lebanon. For the 1985–1988 subconflict of the Lebanese Civil War, see War of the Camps . From 16 to 18 September 1982, between 1,300 and 3,500 civilians—mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shias —were killed in Beirut 's Sabra neighbourhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp by the Lebanese Forces , one of the main Christian militias in Lebanon , with the support of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). In June 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon with the intention of rooting out the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). By 30 August 1982, under the supervision of the Multinational Force , the PLO withdrew from Lebanon following weeks of battles in West Beirut and shortly before the massacre took place. The Lebanese president Bashir Gemayel banned the Lebanese Forces from operating in Beirut, replacing their positions with the Lebanese army. On 11 September 1982, the multinational force withdrew from Lebanon, and the Lebanese army entered parts of West Beirut to restore civil order but did not enter the Palestinian camps. Various forces—Israeli, Lebanese Forces and possibly also the South Lebanon Army (SLA)—were in the vicinity of Sabra and Shatila at the time of the slaughter, taking advantage of the fact that the Multinational Force had removed barracks and mines that had encircled Beirut's predominantly Muslim neighborhoods and kept the Israelis at bay during the siege of Beirut . On 14 September, Bashir was assassinated by an SSNP militant under the orders of the Syrian regime, and taking advantage of the power vacuum Israel occupied west Beirut the following day. The Israeli advance over West Beirut in the wake of the PLO withdrawal, which enabled the Lebanese Forces raid, was in violation of the ceasefire agreement between the various forces. The killings are widely believed to have taken place under the command of Lebanese politician Elie Hobeika , whose family and fiancée had been murdered by Palestinian militants and left-wing Lebanese militias during the Damour massacre in 1976, itself a response to the Karantina massacre of Palestinians and Lebanese Shias at the hands of Christian militias. In total, between 300 and 400 militiamen were involved in the massacre, including some from the South Lebanon Army . As the massacre unfolded, the IDF received reports of atrocities being committed, but did not take any action to stop it. Instead, Israeli troops were stationed at the exits of the area to prevent the camp's residents from leaving and, at the request of the Lebanese Forces, shot flares to illuminate Sabra and Shatila through the night during the massacre. In February 1983, an independent commission chaired by Irish diplomat Seán MacBride , assistant to the Secretary-General of the United Nations , concluded that the IDF, as the then occupying power over Sabra and Shatila, bore responsibility for the militia's massacre. The commission also stated that the massacre was a form of genocide . And in February 1983, the Israeli Kahan Commission found that Israeli military personnel had failed to take serious steps to stop the killings despite being aware of the militia's actions, and deemed that the IDF was indirectly responsible for the events, and forced erstwhile Israeli defense minister Ariel Sharon to resign from his position \"for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge\" during the massacre. ^ \"Sabra and Shatila massacre: What happened in Lebanon in 1982?\" . Al Jazeera . 16 September 2022. ^ Fisk 2001 , pp. 382–383 ; Quandt 1993 , p. 266 ; Alpher 2015 , p. 48 ; Gonzalez 2013 , p. 113 ^ Hirst 2010 , p. 154. ^ Anziska, Seth (17 September 2012). \"A Preventable Massacre\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 15 August 2014 . Retrieved 21 July 2022 . ^ Mostyn, Trevor (25 January 2002). \"Obituary: Elie Hobeika\" . The Guardian . guardian.co.uk. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017 . Retrieved 16 August 2015 . ^ Friedman 1982 . Also articles in The New York Times on the 20, 21, and 27 September 1982. ^ Harris, William W. (2006). The New Face of Lebanon: History's Revenge . Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-55876-392-0 . Retrieved 27 July 2013 . the massacre of 1,500 Palestinians, Shi'is, and others in Karantina and Maslakh, and the revenge killings of hundreds of Christians in Damour ^ Hassan, Maher (24 January 2010). \"Politics and war of Elie Hobeika\" . Egypt Independent . Archived from the original on 27 January 2023 . Retrieved 29 December 2012 . ^ Bulloch, John (1983). Final Conflict: The War in Lebanon . Century London. p. 231. ISBN 0-7126-0171-6 . ^ Malone, Linda A. (1985). \"The Kahan Report, Ariel Sharon and the Sabra Shatilla Massacres in Lebanon: Responsibility Under International Law for Massacres of Civilian Populations\" . Utah Law Review : 373– 433. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023 . Retrieved 1 January 2013 . ^ Shahid 2002 , p. 38. ^ Hirst 2010 , p. 157: \"The carnage began immediately. It was to continue without interruption till Saturday noon. Night brought no respite; the Lebanses Forces liaison officer asked for illumination and the Israelis duly obliged with flares, first from mortars and then from planes.\" ^ Friedman, Thomas (1995). From Beirut to Jerusalem . Macmillan. p. 161 . ISBN 978-0-385-41372-5 . From there, small units of Lebanese Forces militiamen, roughly 150 men each, were sent into Sabra and Shatila, which the Israeli army kept illuminated through the night with flares. ^ Cobban, Helena (1984). The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: people, power, and politics . Cambridge University Press . p. 4 . ISBN 978-0-521-27216-2 . and while Israeli troops fired a stream of flares over the Palestinian refugee camps in the Sabra and Shatila districts of West Beirut, the Israeli's Christian Lebanese allies carried out a massacre of innocents there which was to shock the whole world. ^ MacBride et al. 1983 , pp. 191–192. ^ Hirst 2010 , p. 153. ^ Schiff & Ya'ari 1985 , pp. 283–284 .",
   "lead_after": "1982 mass murder of civilians in Beirut, Lebanon This article is about the 1982 mass murder in Beirut, Lebanon. For the 1985–1988 subconflict of the Lebanese Civil War, see War of the Camps . From 16 to 18 September 1982, between 1,300 and 3,500 civilians—mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shias —were killed in Beirut 's Sabra neighbourhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp by the Lebanese Forces , one of the main Christian militias in Lebanon , with the support of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). In June 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon with the intention of rooting out the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). By 30 August 1982, under the supervision of the Multinational Force , the PLO withdrew from Lebanon following weeks of battles in West Beirut and shortly before the massacre took place. The Lebanese president Bashir Gemayel banned the Lebanese Forces from operating in Beirut, replacing their positions with the Lebanese army. On 11 September 1982, the multinational force withdrew from Lebanon, and the Lebanese army entered parts of West Beirut to restore civil order but did not enter the Palestinian camps. Various forces—Israeli, Lebanese Forces and possibly also the South Lebanon Army (SLA)—were in the vicinity of Sabra and Shatila at the time of the slaughter, taking advantage of the fact that the Multinational Force had removed barracks and mines that had encircled Beirut's predominantly Muslim neighborhoods and kept the Israelis at bay during the siege of Beirut . On 14 September, Bashir was assassinated by a Syrian Social Nationalist Party militant under the orders of the Syrian regime, and taking advantage of the power vacuum Israel occupied west Beirut the following day. The Israeli advance over West Beirut in the wake of the PLO withdrawal, which enabled the Lebanese Forces raid, was in violation of the ceasefire agreement between the various forces. The killings are widely believed to have taken place under the command of Lebanese politician Elie Hobeika , whose family and fiancée had been murdered by Palestinian militants and left-wing Lebanese militias during the Damour massacre in 1976, itself a response to the Karantina massacre of Palestinians and Lebanese Shias at the hands of Christian militias. In total, between 300 and 400 militiamen were involved in the massacre, including some from the South Lebanon Army . As the massacre unfolded, the IDF received reports of atrocities being committed, but did not take any action to stop it. Instead, Israeli troops were stationed at the exits of the area to prevent the camp's residents from leaving and, at the request of the Lebanese Forces, shot flares to illuminate Sabra and Shatila through the night during the massacre. In February 1983, an independent commission chaired by Irish diplomat Seán MacBride , assistant to the Secretary-General of the United Nations , concluded that the IDF, as the then occupying power over Sabra and Shatila, bore responsibility for the militia's massacre. The commission also stated that the massacre was a form of genocide . And in February 1983, the Israeli Kahan Commission found that Israeli military personnel had failed to take serious steps to stop the killings despite being aware of the militia's actions, and deemed that the IDF was indirectly responsible for the events, and forced erstwhile Israeli defense minister Ariel Sharon to resign from his position \"for ignoring the danger of bloodshed and revenge\" during the massacre. ^ \"Sabra and Shatila massacre: What happened in Lebanon in 1982?\" . Al Jazeera . 16 September 2022. ^ Fisk 2001 , pp. 382–383 ; Quandt 1993 , p. 266 ; Alpher 2015 , p. 48 ; Gonzalez 2013 , p. 113 ^ Hirst 2010 , p. 154. ^ Anziska, Seth (17 September 2012). \"A Preventable Massacre\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 15 August 2014 . Retrieved 21 July 2022 . ^ Mostyn, Trevor (25 January 2002). \"Obituary: Elie Hobeika\" . The Guardian . guardian.co.uk. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017 . Retrieved 16 August 2015 . ^ Friedman 1982 . Also articles in The New York Times on the 20, 21, and 27 September 1982. ^ Harris, William W. (2006). The New Face of Lebanon: History's Revenge . Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-55876-392-0 . Retrieved 27 July 2013 . the massacre of 1,500 Palestinians, Shi'is, and others in Karantina and Maslakh, and the revenge killings of hundreds of Christians in Damour ^ Hassan, Maher (24 January 2010). \"Politics and war of Elie Hobeika\" . Egypt Independent . Archived from the original on 27 January 2023 . Retrieved 29 December 2012 . ^ Bulloch, John (1983). Final Conflict: The War in Lebanon . Century London. p. 231. ISBN 0-7126-0171-6 . ^ Malone, Linda A. (1985). \"The Kahan Report, Ariel Sharon and the Sabra Shatilla Massacres in Lebanon: Responsibility Under International Law for Massacres of Civilian Populations\" . Utah Law Review : 373– 433. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023 . Retrieved 1 January 2013 . ^ Shahid 2002 , p. 38. ^ Hirst 2010 , p. 157: \"The carnage began immediately. It was to continue without interruption till Saturday noon. Night brought no respite; the Lebanses Forces liaison officer asked for illumination and the Israelis duly obliged with flares, first from mortars and then from planes.\" ^ Friedman, Thomas (1995). From Beirut to Jerusalem . Macmillan. p. 161 . ISBN 978-0-385-41372-5 . From there, small units of Lebanese Forces militiamen, roughly 150 men each, were sent into Sabra and Shatila, which the Israeli army kept illuminated through the night with flares. ^ Cobban, Helena (1984). The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: people, power, and politics . Cambridge University Press . p. 4 . ISBN 978-0-521-27216-2 . and while Israeli troops fired a stream of flares over the Palestinian refugee camps in the Sabra and Shatila districts of West Beirut, the Israeli's Christian Lebanese allies carried out a massacre of innocents there which was to shock the whole world. ^ MacBride et al. 1983 , pp. 191–192. ^ Hirst 2010 , p. 153. ^ Schiff & Ya'ari 1985 , pp. 283–284 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Western Wall",
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   "lead_before": "Holy site of Judaism in Jerusalem \"West Wall\" redirects here. For the fortifications known in German as the Westwall, see Siegfried Line . For other uses, see Western Wall (disambiguation) . \"Wailing Wall\" redirects here. For other uses, see Wailing Wall (disambiguation) . Sieges Before Common Era 701 BCE 597 BCE 587 BCE 63 BCE 37 BCE Common Era 70 614 637 1099 1187 1244 1834 1917 1948 Places East West Old City Al-Aqsa Mosque compound / Temple Mount Dome of the Rock Qibli (Al-Aqsa) Mosque Western Wall Synagogues Mosques Church of the Holy Sepulchre Hebrew University Knesset Biblical Zoo Tomb of Lazarus Al-Quds University People Demographic history Mayor Chief Rabbi Grand Mufti Greek Orthodox Patriarch Crusader kings Political status Religious significance Judaism Christianity Islam Jerusalem Law Jerusalem Day Quds Day Judaization Islamization US recognition Other topics Names Municipality Seal Greater Jerusalem Cuisine City Line Transport Songs Historical maps v t e Western Wall The Western Wall ( Hebrew : הַכּוֹתֶל הַמַּעֲרָבִי , romanized : HaKotel HaMa'aravi , lit. ' the western wall ' ; Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: HaKosel HaMa'arovi ) is an ancient retaining wall of the built-up hill known to Jews and Christians as the Temple Mount of Jerusalem . Its most famous section, known by the same name, often shortened by Jews to the Kotel or Kosel , is known in the West as the Wailing Wall , and in the Arab world and Islamic world as the Buraq Wall ( Arabic : حَائِط ٱلْبُرَاق , romanized : Ḥā'iṭ al-Burāq ; ['ħaːʔɪtˤ albʊ'raːq] ). In a Jewish religious context, the term Western Wall and its variations is used in the narrow sense, for the section used for Jewish prayer; in its broader sense it refers to the entire 488-metre-long (1,601 ft) retaining wall on the western side of the Temple Mount. At the prayer section, just over half the wall's total height, including its 17 courses located below street level, dates from the end of the Second Temple period , and is believed to have been begun by Herod the Great . The very large stone blocks of the lower courses are Herodian, the courses of medium-sized stones above them were added during the Umayyad period , while the small stones of the uppermost courses are of more recent date, especially from the Ottoman period . The Western Wall plays an important role in Judaism due to it being part of the man-made \"Temple Mount\", an artificially expanded hilltop best known as the traditional site of the Jewish Temple . Because of the Temple Mount entry restrictions , the Wall is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray outside the Temple Mount platform, because the presumed site of the Holy of Holies , the most sacred site in the Jewish faith, presumably lies just above and behind it. The original, natural, and irregular-shaped Temple Mount was gradually extended to allow for an ever-larger Temple compound to be built at its top. The earliest source possibly mentioning this specific site as a place of Jewish worship is from the 10th century. The Western Wall, in the narrow sense, i.e. referring to the section used for Jewish prayer, is also known as the \"Wailing Wall\", in reference to the practice of Jews weeping at the site. During the period of Christian Roman rule over Jerusalem (ca. 324–638), Jews were completely barred from Jerusalem except on Tisha B'Av , the day of national mourning for the Temples. The term \"Wailing Wall\" has historically been used mainly by Christians, with use by Jews becoming marginal. Of the entire retaining wall, the section ritually used by Jews now faces a large plaza in the Jewish Quarter, near the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount, while the rest of the wall is concealed behind structures in the Muslim Quarter , with the small exception of an 8-metre (26 ft) section, the so-called \" Little Western Wall \" or \"Small Wailing Wall\". This segment of the western retaining wall derives particular importance from having never been fully obscured by medieval buildings, and displaying much of the original Herodian stonework . In religious terms, the \"Little Western Wall\" is presumed to be even closer to the Holy of Holies and thus to the \"presence of God\" ( Shechina ), and the underground Warren's Gate , which has been out of reach for Jews from the 12th century till its partial excavation in the 20th century. The entire Western Wall constitutes the western border of al-Haram al-Sharif (\"the Noble Sanctuary\"), or the Al-Aqsa compound. It is believed to be the site where the Islamic Prophet Muhammad tied his winged steed, the Burāq , on his Night Journey , which tradition connects to Jerusalem, before ascending to heaven. While the wall was considered an integral part of the Haram esh-Sharif and waqf property of the Moroccan Quarter under Muslim rule, a right of Jewish prayer and pilgrimage has long existed as part of the Status Quo regulations. This position was confirmed in a 1930 international commission during the British Mandate period. With the rise of the Zionist movement in the early 20th century, the wall became a source of friction between the Jewish and Muslim communities, the latter being worried that the wall could be used to further Jewish claims to the Temple Mount and thus Jerusalem. During this period outbreaks of violence at the foot of the wall became commonplace, with a particularly deadly riot in 1929 in which 133 Jews and 116 Arabs were killed, with many more people injured. After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War the eastern portion of Jerusalem was occupied by Jordan. Under Jordanian control Jews were completely expelled from the Old City including the Jewish Quarter , effectively banning Jewish prayer at the site of the Western Wall for 19 years. This period ended on June 10, 1967, when Israel gained control of the site following the Six-Day War . Three days after establishing control over the Western Wall site, the Moroccan Quarter was bulldozed by Israeli authorities to create space for what is now the Western Wall plaza. Herodian ashlars of the Western Wall with the fine-grained stones heavily eroded alongside the perserved coarse-grained stones ^ \"The Temple Mount in the Herodian Period (37 BC–70 AD)\" . Biblical Archaeology Society. July 21, 2019 . Retrieved July 17, 2020 . ^ Ramon, Amnon (2002). \"Delicate balances at the Temple Mount, 1967–1999\" . In Marshall J. Breger; Ora Ahimeir (eds.). Jerusalem: A City and Its Future . Syracuse University Press for the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies . p. 300. ISBN 978-0815629139 . Retrieved March 18, 2020 . ^ Löfgren, Eliel; Barde, Charles; Van Kempen, J. (December 1930). Report of the Commission appointed by His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with the approval of the Council of the League of Nations, to determine the rights and claims of Moslems and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall at Jerusalem (UNISPAL doc A/7057-S/8427, February 23, 1968) ^ Halkin 2001 ^ UN Conciliation Commission (1949). United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine Working Paper on the Holy Places . p. 26. The Palestine Administration interpreted the Status Quo in respect of the Wailing Wall as being that the Jewish Community had a right of access to the pavement in front of the Wall for their devotions, but that the Wall itself, the pavement in front of it and the adjacent Moroccan Quarter, were legally Moslem property. The Jews might bring to the Wall only those appurtenances of worship that were allowed under the Ottoman regime. This position was in general reaffirmed by the International Commission appointed by the British Government in 1930, with the approval of the Council of the League of Nations, to enquire into conflicting rights and claims concerning the Wailing Wall. The International Commission further ruled that although the Jews enjoyed no sort of proprietary rights to the Wall or the adjacent pavement, they should have free access to them at all times, subject to certain stipulations. The placing of benches and screens against the Wall was prohibited; the Moslems were similarly forbidden to carry out the Zikr ceremony during the progress of Jewish devotions or to cause annoyance to the Jews in any other way; no political speeches or demonstrations near the Wall were to be allowed; the Moslems' right to repair the pavement was affirmed, and if any repairs were not carried out by them in due time, the work was to be undertaken by the Government. The maintenance of the Wall itself was entrusted to the Government, but it was understood that repairs to it should be carried out only after consultation with the Supreme Moslem Council and the Chief Rabbinate. ^ Cust, L. G. A. (1929). The Status Quo in the Holy Places . H.M.S.O. for the High Commissioner of the Government of Palestine. pp. 44– 45. The immediate neighbourhood of the Wailing Wall is inhabited by a number of Moroccan families, who are the beneficiaries of the ancient Waqf dating from the thirteenth century of Abu Midian. Some of the dwellings are entered from the space in front of the Wall. The wall separating the garden to the north from the Wailing Wall was rebuilt without incident in 1929. The wall overlooking the Wailing Wall by the Bab-al-Mughrabi was also rebuilt at the same time. The Moslems wanted to erect a low wall, but it was ruled, to preserve the Status Quo, that the wall must be rebuilt to its former height. The Wailing Wall, as being one of the few relics of the Temple of Herod of undisputed authenticity, is held in very great veneration by the Jews. Jewish writers refer to it as \"the Holiest possession of the fifteen millions of Jews throughout the world which they have not forgotten for one moment since the Dispersion.\" On Sabbaths and other Holy Days the Wall is thronged with worshippers, the American and European Jew mixing with the Orthodox Jew in his caftan and the Bokharan in his gorgeous silks. The Jewish custom of praying here is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned by Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela and has now become an established right. This right to pray has, however, become linked with the claim to the actual ownership of the Wall. The Moslems resist this on the ground that the Wall is an integral part of the enclosure wall of the Haram al Sharif, and that the space in front of it is a public way, and part of the premises of the Abu Midian Waqf. For this reason the Moslems have always protested against the placing of benches or chairs in front of the Wall by the Jews as causing an obstruction in this public way and implying possessory rights. Though benches have certainly from time to time been introduced, there is extant a resolution taken by the Administrative Council and confirmed by the Mutasarrif in 1912 that chairs or tents or curtains (to divide the women from the men) are not to be allowed. This is still enforced, but portable camp-stools or boxes or tins with cushions are permitted for the convenience of worshippers. This ruling was notified to the Jewish religious authorities and the Police by the District Governor in 1922, and confirmed in 1926 after a rather serious dispute had arisen on account of the introduction of some benches on the previous Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). ^ Yitzhak Reiter (2017). Contested Holy Places in Israel–Palestine: Sharing and Conflict Resolution . Taylor & Francis. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-1-351-99884-0 . ^ \"Western Wall weathering: Extreme erosion explained\" . Hebrew University of Jerusalem - phys.org . August 11, 2014 . Retrieved May 15, 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Holy site of Judaism in Jerusalem \"West Wall\" redirects here. For the fortifications known in German as the Westwall, see Siegfried Line . For other uses, see Western Wall (disambiguation) . \"Wailing Wall\" redirects here. For other uses, see Wailing Wall (disambiguation) . Sieges Before Common Era 701 BCE 597 BCE 587 BCE 63 BCE 37 BCE Common Era 70 614 637 1099 1187 1244 1834 1917 1948 Places East West Old City Al-Aqsa Mosque compound / Temple Mount Dome of the Rock Qibli (Al-Aqsa) Mosque Western Wall Synagogues Mosques Church of the Holy Sepulchre Hebrew University Knesset Biblical Zoo Tomb of Lazarus Al-Quds University People Demographic history Mayor Chief Rabbi Grand Mufti Greek Orthodox Patriarch Crusader kings Political status Religious significance Judaism Christianity Islam Jerusalem Law Jerusalem Day Quds Day Judaization Islamization US recognition Other topics Names Municipality Seal Greater Jerusalem Cuisine City Line Transport Songs Historical maps v t e Western Wall The Western Wall ( Hebrew : הַכּוֹתֶל הַמַּעֲרָבִי , romanized : HaKotel HaMa'aravi , lit. ' the western wall ' ; Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: HaKosel HaMa'arovi ) is an ancient retaining wall of the built-up hill known to Jews and Christians as the Temple Mount of Jerusalem . Its most famous section, known by the same name, often shortened by Jews to the Kotel or Kosel , is known in the West as the Wailing Wall , and in the Arab world and Islamic world as the Buraq Wall ( Arabic : حَائِط ٱلْبُرَاق , romanized : Ḥā'iṭ al-Burāq ; ['ħaːʔɪtˤ albʊ'raːq] ). In a Jewish religious context, the term Western Wall and its variations is used in the narrow sense, for the section used for Jewish prayer; in its broader sense it refers to the entire 488-metre-long (1,601 ft) retaining wall on the western side of the Temple Mount. At the prayer section, just over half the wall's total height, including its 17 courses located below street level, dates from the end of the Second Temple period , and is believed to have been begun by Herod the Great . The very large stone blocks of the lower courses are Herodian, the courses of medium-sized stones above them were added during the Umayyad period , while the small stones of the uppermost courses are of more recent date, especially from the Ottoman period . The Western Wall plays an important role in Judaism due to it being part of the man-made \"Temple Mount\", an artificially expanded hilltop best known as the traditional site of the Jewish Temple . Because of the Temple Mount entry restrictions , the Wall is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray outside the Temple Mount platform, because the presumed site of the Holy of Holies , the most sacred site in the Jewish faith, presumably lies just above and behind it. The original, natural, and irregular-shaped Temple Mount was gradually extended to allow for an ever-larger Temple compound to be built at its top. The earliest source possibly mentioning this specific site as a place of Jewish worship is from the 10th century. The Western Wall, in the narrow sense, i.e. referring to the section used for Jewish prayer, is also known as the \"Wailing Wall\", in reference to the practice of Jews weeping at the site. During the period of Christian Roman rule over Jerusalem (ca. 324–638), Jews were completely barred from Jerusalem except on Tisha B'Av , the day of national mourning for the Temples. The term \"Wailing Wall\" has historically been used mainly by Christians, with use by Jews becoming marginal. Of the entire retaining wall, the section ritually used by Jews now faces a large plaza in the Jewish Quarter, near the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount, while the rest of the wall is concealed behind structures in the Muslim Quarter , with the small exception of an 8-metre (26 ft) section, the so-called \" Little Western Wall \" or \"Small Wailing Wall\". This segment of the western retaining wall derives particular importance from having never been fully obscured by medieval buildings, and displaying much of the original Herodian stonework . In religious terms, the \"Little Western Wall\" is presumed to be even closer to the Holy of Holies and thus to the \"presence of God\" ( Shechina ), and the underground Warren's Gate , which has been out of reach for Jews from the 12th century till its partial excavation in the 20th century. The entire Western Wall constitutes the western border of al-Haram al-Sharif (\"the Noble Sanctuary\"), or the Al-Aqsa compound. It is believed to be the site where the Islamic Prophet Muhammad tied his winged steed, the Burāq , on his Night Journey , which tradition connects to Jerusalem, before ascending to heaven. While the wall was considered an integral part of the Haram esh-Sharif and waqf property of the Moroccan Quarter under Muslim rule, a right of Jewish prayer and pilgrimage has long existed as part of the Status Quo regulations. This position was confirmed in a 1930 international commission during the British Mandate period. With the rise of the Zionist movement in the early 20th century, the wall became a source of friction between the Jewish and Muslim communities, the latter being worried that the wall could be used to further Jewish claims to the Temple Mount and thus Jerusalem. During this period outbreaks of violence at the foot of the wall became commonplace, with a particularly deadly riot in 1929 in which 133 Jews and 116 Arabs were killed, with many more people injured. After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War the eastern portion of Jerusalem was occupied by Jordan. Under Jordanian control Jews were completely expelled from the Old City including the Jewish Quarter , effectively banning Jewish prayer at the site of the Western Wall for 19 years. This period ended on June 10, 1967, when Israel gained control of the site following the Six-Day War . Three days after establishing control over the Western Wall site, the Moroccan Quarter was bulldozed by Israeli authorities to create space for what is now the Western Wall plaza. Herodian ashlars of the Western Wall with the fine-grained stones heavily eroded alongside the perserved coarse-grained stones ^ \"The Temple Mount in the Herodian Period (37 BC–70 AD)\" . Biblical Archaeology Society. July 21, 2019 . Retrieved July 17, 2020 . ^ Ramon, Amnon (2002). \"Delicate balances at the Temple Mount, 1967–1999\" . In Marshall J. Breger; Ora Ahimeir (eds.). Jerusalem: A City and Its Future . Syracuse University Press for the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies . p. 300. ISBN 978-0815629139 . Retrieved March 18, 2020 . ^ Löfgren, Eliel; Barde, Charles; Van Kempen, J. (December 1930). Report of the Commission appointed by His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with the approval of the Council of the League of Nations, to determine the rights and claims of Moslems and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall at Jerusalem (UNISPAL doc A/7057-S/8427, February 23, 1968) ^ Halkin 2001 ^ UN Conciliation Commission (1949). United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine Working Paper on the Holy Places . p. 26. The Palestine Administration interpreted the Status Quo in respect of the Wailing Wall as being that the Jewish Community had a right of access to the pavement in front of the Wall for their devotions, but that the Wall itself, the pavement in front of it and the adjacent Moroccan Quarter, were legally Moslem property. The Jews might bring to the Wall only those appurtenances of worship that were allowed under the Ottoman regime. This position was in general reaffirmed by the International Commission appointed by the British Government in 1930, with the approval of the Council of the League of Nations, to enquire into conflicting rights and claims concerning the Wailing Wall. The International Commission further ruled that although the Jews enjoyed no sort of proprietary rights to the Wall or the adjacent pavement, they should have free access to them at all times, subject to certain stipulations. The placing of benches and screens against the Wall was prohibited; the Moslems were similarly forbidden to carry out the Zikr ceremony during the progress of Jewish devotions or to cause annoyance to the Jews in any other way; no political speeches or demonstrations near the Wall were to be allowed; the Moslems' right to repair the pavement was affirmed, and if any repairs were not carried out by them in due time, the work was to be undertaken by the Government. The maintenance of the Wall itself was entrusted to the Government, but it was understood that repairs to it should be carried out only after consultation with the Supreme Moslem Council and the Chief Rabbinate. ^ Cust, L. G. A. (1929). The Status Quo in the Holy Places . H.M.S.O. for the High Commissioner of the Government of Palestine. pp. 44– 45. The immediate neighbourhood of the Wailing Wall is inhabited by a number of Moroccan families, who are the beneficiaries of the ancient Waqf dating from the thirteenth century of Abu Midian. Some of the dwellings are entered from the space in front of the Wall. The wall separating the garden to the north from the Wailing Wall was rebuilt without incident in 1929. The wall overlooking the Wailing Wall by the Bab-al-Mughrabi was also rebuilt at the same time. The Moslems wanted to erect a low wall, but it was ruled, to preserve the Status Quo, that the wall must be rebuilt to its former height. The Wailing Wall, as being one of the few relics of the Temple of Herod of undisputed authenticity, is held in very great veneration by the Jews. Jewish writers refer to it as \"the Holiest possession of the fifteen millions of Jews throughout the world which they have not forgotten for one moment since the Dispersion.\" On Sabbaths and other Holy Days the Wall is thronged with worshippers, the American and European Jew mixing with the Orthodox Jew in his caftan and the Bokharan in his gorgeous silks. The Jewish custom of praying here is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned by Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela and has now become an established right. This right to pray has, however, become linked with the claim to the actual ownership of the Wall. The Moslems resist this on the ground that the Wall is an integral part of the enclosure wall of the Haram al Sharif, and that the space in front of it is a public way, and part of the premises of the Abu Midian Waqf. For this reason the Moslems have always protested against the placing of benches or chairs in front of the Wall by the Jews as causing an obstruction in this public way and implying possessory rights. Though benches have certainly from time to time been introduced, there is extant a resolution taken by the Administrative Council and confirmed by the Mutasarrif in 1912 that chairs or tents or curtains (to divide the women from the men) are not to be allowed. This is still enforced, but portable camp-stools or boxes or tins with cushions are permitted for the convenience of worshippers. This ruling was notified to the Jewish religious authorities and the Police by the District Governor in 1922, and confirmed in 1926 after a rather serious dispute had arisen on account of the introduction of some benches on the previous Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). ^ Yitzhak Reiter (2017). Contested Holy Places in Israel–Palestine: Sharing and Conflict Resolution . Taylor & Francis. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-1-351-99884-0 . ^ \"Western Wall weathering: Extreme erosion explained\" . Hebrew University of Jerusalem - phys.org . August 11, 2014 . Retrieved May 15, 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Temple denial",
   "pageid": 24214715,
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temple_denial&oldid=1360740927",
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   "lead_before": "Historical assertion Reconstruction of the Second Temple in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem Temple denial is the claim that the successive Temples in Jerusalem either did not exist or they did exist but were not constructed on the site of the Temple Mount . This claim has been advanced by Islamic political leaders, religious figures, intellectuals, and authors. ^ Yitzhak Reiter (2005), From Jerusalem to Mecca and Back: The Islamic Consolidation of Jerusalem , Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies.",
   "lead_after": "Historical claim Reconstruction of the Second Temple in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem Temple denial is the claim that the successive temples in Jerusalem either did not exist or they did exist but were not constructed in Jerusalem on the site of the Temple Mount . This claim has been advanced by Islamic political leaders, religious figures, intellectuals, and authors. Among them was then- Palestinian National Authority President Yasser Arafat , who made statements placing the Temple in Nablus . This denial stands in contrast to accounts of the Temples in Jerusalem that appear in the Hebrew Bible , as well as accounts of Jesus in the New Testament , contemporaneous accounts by historian Josephus and documents published by the Supreme Muslim Council led by Amin al-Husseini , which place the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem on the Temple Mount. ^ Yitzhak Reiter (2005), From Jerusalem to Mecca and Back: The Islamic Consolidation of Jerusalem , Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies."
  },
  {
   "title": "Cave of the Patriarchs",
   "pageid": 74664,
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   "lead_before": "Holy site in Hebron, Palestine \"Machpelah\" redirects here. For the historic site in the US, see Machpelah (Townsville, North Carolina) . For other uses, see Machpelah Cemetery . The Cave of the Patriarchs or Tomb of the Patriarchs , known to Jews by its Biblical name Cave of Machpelah ( Biblical Hebrew : מְעָרַת הַמַּכְפֵּלָה , romanized: Məʿāraṯ hamMaḵpēlā , lit. ' Cave of the Double ' ) and to Muslims as the Ibrahami Mosque ( Arabic : المسجد الإبراهيمي , romanized : al-Masjid al-ʾibrāhīmī ), or Sanctuary of Ibrahim ( Arabic : الحرم الإبراهيمي , romanized : al-Ḥaram al-ʾibrāhīmī ), is a series of caves situated in the heart of the Old City of Hebron in the West Bank , 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Jerusalem . According to the Abrahamic religions , the cave and adjoining field were purchased by Abraham as a burial plot. The site is considered a holy place in Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . Over the cave stands a large rectangular enclosure dating from the Herodian era . During Byzantine rule of the region, a Christian basilica was built on the site; the structure was converted into the Ibrahimi Mosque following the Muslim conquest of the Byzantines . By the 12th century, the mosque and its surrounding regions had fallen under Crusader-state control, but were retaken in 1188 by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin , who again converted the structure into a mosque. In 1119 CE, a monk found bones inside the cave, believing them to be the bones of the patriarchs . During the Six-Day War of 1967, the entire Jordanian-ruled West Bank was seized and occupied by the State of Israel , after which the mosque was divided, with half of it repurposed as a synagogue . In 1968, special Jewish services were authorized outside the usual permitted hours on the Jewish New Year and Day of Atonement. ^ Cite error: The named reference Berney was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sammān, Muḥammad ʻAbd Allāh; الله, سمان، محمد عبد (1994). مذبحة الحرم الإبراهيمي: القضية المنسية وسط التخاذل العربي والاستجابة لأنغام السلام المزيف (in Arabic). دار الاعتصام،. ^ الدعوة :مجلة إسلامية اسبوعية جامعة (in Arabic). مؤسسة الدعوة الإسلامية الصحفية،. 1999. ^ والتوزيع, مؤسسة أعمال الموسوعة للنشر (1999). الموسوعة العربية العالمية - المجلد العاشر - خ - د - ذ (in Arabic). العبيكان للنشر. ISBN 978-9960-803-42-5 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference sellic1994 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Jacobsson, David M. (2000). \"Decorative Drafted-margin Masonry in Jerusalem and Hebron and its Relations\". The Journal of the Council for British Research in the Levant . 32 : 135– 54. doi : 10.1179/lev.2000.32.1.135 . ISSN 0075-8914 . S2CID 162263112 . ^ \"In Hebron, Israelis and Palestinians share a holy site ... begrudgingly\" . PRI . 10 November 2015. Archived from the original on 29 November 2018 . Retrieved 29 November 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference BAR was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hammond, Constance A. Shalom/Salaam/Peace: A Liberation Theology of Hope . p. 37. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cohen1985 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Holy site in Hebron, Palestine \"Machpelah\" redirects here. For the historic site in the US, see Machpelah (Townsville, North Carolina) . For other uses, see Machpelah Cemetery . The Cave of the Patriarchs or Tomb of the Patriarchs , known to Jews by its Biblical name Cave of Machpelah ( Biblical Hebrew : מְעָרַת הַמַּכְפֵּלָה , romanized: Məʿāraṯ hamMaḵpēlā , lit. ' Cave of the Double ' ) and to Muslims as the Ibrahami Mosque ( Arabic : المسجد الإبراهيمي , romanized : al-Masjid al-ʾibrāhīmī ), or Sanctuary of Ibrahim ( Arabic : الحرم الإبراهيمي , romanized : al-Ḥaram al-ʾibrāhīmī ), is a series of caves situated in the heart of the Old City of Hebron in the West Bank , 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Jerusalem . According to the Abrahamic religions , the cave and adjoining field were purchased by Abraham as a burial plot. The site is considered a holy place in Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . Over the cave stands a large rectangular enclosure dating from the Herodian era . During Byzantine rule of the region, a Christian basilica was built on the site; the structure was converted into the Ibrahimi Mosque following the Muslim conquest of the Byzantines . By the 12th century, the mosque and its surrounding regions had fallen under Crusader-state control, but were retaken in 1188 by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin , who again converted the structure into a mosque. In 1119 CE, a monk found bones inside the cave, believing them to be the bones of the patriarchs . During the Six-Day War of 1967, the entire Jordanian-ruled West Bank was seized and occupied by the State of Israel , after which the mosque was divided, with half of it repurposed as a synagogue . In 1968, special Jewish services were authorized outside the usual permitted hours on the Jewish New Year and Day of Atonement. ^ Cite error: The named reference Berney was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sammān, Muḥammad ʻAbd Allāh; الله, سمان، محمد عبد (1994). مذبحة الحرم الإبراهيمي: القضية المنسية وسط التخاذل العربي والاستجابة لأنغام السلام المزيف (in Arabic). دار الاعتصام،. ^ الدعوة :مجلة إسلامية اسبوعية جامعة (in Arabic). مؤسسة الدعوة الإسلامية الصحفية،. 1999. ^ والتوزيع, مؤسسة أعمال الموسوعة للنشر (1999). الموسوعة العربية العالمية - المجلد العاشر - خ - د - ذ (in Arabic). العبيكان للنشر. ISBN 978-9960-803-42-5 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference sellic1994 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Jacobsson, David M. (2000). \"Decorative Drafted-margin Masonry in Jerusalem and Hebron and its Relations\". The Journal of the Council for British Research in the Levant . 32 : 135– 54. doi : 10.1179/lev.2000.32.1.135 . ISSN 0075-8914 . S2CID 162263112 . ^ \"In Hebron, Israelis and Palestinians share a holy site ... begrudgingly\" . PRI . 10 November 2015. Archived from the original on 29 November 2018 . Retrieved 29 November 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference BAR was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hammond, Constance A. Shalom/Salaam/Peace: A Liberation Theology of Hope . p. 37. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cohen1985 was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry",
   "pageid": 41039874,
   "revid_before": 1358321968,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-20T05:10:12Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry&oldid=1358321968",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry&oldid=1365088883",
   "lead_before": "Largely abandoned theory about Jewish descent \"Khazar myth\" redirects here. For other uses, see Khazar myth (disambiguation) . Khazar Khaganate, 650–850 A largely abandoned historical hypothesis postulated that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from converts to Judaism among the Khazars , a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and central Caucasus and the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the late 6th century CE. It is still sometimes used in antisemitic conspiracy theories and in various anti-Zionist approaches. The hypothesis draws on medieval sources such as the Khazar Correspondence , according to which at some point in the 8th–9th centuries, a small number of Khazars were said by Judah Halevi and Abraham ibn Daud to have converted to Rabbinic Judaism . The hypothesis also postulates that after collapse of the Khazar empire, the Khazars fled to Eastern Europe and made up a large part of the Jews there. The scope of the conversion within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain, but the evidence used to tie the subsequent Ashkenazi communities to the Khazars is meager and subject to conflicting interpretations. Speculation that Europe's Jewish population originated among the Khazars has persisted for two centuries, from at least as early as 1808. In the late 19th century, Ernest Renan and other scholars speculated that the Ashkenazi Jews of Europe originated among refugees who had migrated from the collapsed Khazarian Khanate westward into Europe. Though intermittently evoked by several scholars since that time, the Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication of Arthur Koestler 's The Thirteenth Tribe in 1976. It has been revived recently by geneticist Eran Elhaik , who in 2013 conducted a study aiming to vindicate it. Genetic studies on Jews have found no substantive evidence of a Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Geneticists such as Doron Behar and others (2013) have concluded that such a link is unlikely, noting that it is difficult to test the Khazar hypothesis using genetics because there is lack of clear modern descendants of the Khazars that could provide a clear test of the contribution to Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry, but found no genetic markers in Ashkenazi Jews that would link them to peoples of the Caucasus/Khazar area. Gil Atzmon et al. found evidence that the Ashkenazi have mixed Near Eastern and Southern European/Mediterranean origins, though some admixture with Khazar and Slavic populations after 100 CE was not excluded. Xue et al. note a wholly Khazar/Turkish/Middle Eastern origin is out of the question, given the complexity of Ashkenazi admixtures. Some anti-Zionists have cited the Khazar hypothesis in an attempt to discredit the claim by modern Jews to the Land of Israel . The Khazar hypothesis is also sometimes cited in antisemitic arguments promoted by adherents of various movements and ideologies to express the belief that modern Jews are not true descendants of the Israelites . ^ Cite error: The named reference Goldstein p.131 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Golden 2007a , p. 149. ^ Venton 2013 , p. 75. ^ Aderet 2014 . ^ Sand 2010 , p. 240.. ^ Elhaik 2013 . ^ Behar & et al. 2013 . ^ Atzmon & et al. 2010 : \"During Greco-Roman times, recorded mass conversions led to 6 million people practicing Judaism in Roman times or up to 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. Thus, the genetic proximity of these European/Syrian Jewish populations, including Ashkenazi Jews, to each other and to French, Northern Italian, and Sardinian populations favors the idea of non-Semitic Mediterranean ancestry in the formation of the European/Syrian Jewish groups and is incompatible with theories that Ashkenazi Jews are for the most part the direct lineal descendants of converted Khazars or Slavs. The genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to southern European populations has been observed in several other recent studies. Admixture with local populations, including Khazars and Slavs, may have occurred subsequently during the 1000 year (2nd millennium) history of the European Jews.\" ^ Xue et al. 2017 : \"AJ genetics defies simple demographic theories. Hypotheses such as a wholly Khazar, Turkish, or Middle-Eastern origin have been disqualified but even a model of a single Middle-Eastern and European admixture event cannot account for all of our observations. The actual admixture history might have been highly complex, including multiple geographic sources and admixture events. Moreover, due to the genetic similarity and complex history of the European populations involved (particularly in Southern Europe, the multiple paths of AJ migration across Europe [10], and the strong genetic drift experienced by AJ in the late Middle Ages, there seems to be a limit on the resolution to which the AJ admixture history can be reconstructed.\" ^ Cite error: The named reference Miller was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Barkun 2012 , p. 165. ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2003 , p. 237. ^ Cite error: The named reference Raphael was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Largely abandoned theory about Jewish descent \"Khazar myth\" redirects here. For other uses, see Khazar myth (disambiguation) . Khazar Khaganate, 650–850 A largely abandoned historical hypothesis postulated that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from converts to Judaism among the Khazars , a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and central Caucasus and the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the late 6th century CE. It is still sometimes used in antisemitic conspiracy theories and in various anti-Zionist approaches. The hypothesis draws on medieval sources such as the Khazar Correspondence , according to which at some point in the 8th–9th centuries, a small number of Khazars were said by Judah Halevi and Abraham ibn Daud to have converted to Rabbinic Judaism . The hypothesis also postulates that after collapse of the Khazar empire, the Khazars fled to Eastern Europe and made up a large part of the Jews there. The scope of the conversion within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain, but the evidence used to tie the subsequent Ashkenazi communities to the Khazars is meager and subject to conflicting interpretations. Speculation that Europe's Jewish population originated among the Khazars has persisted for two centuries, from at least as early as 1808. In the late 19th century, Ernest Renan and other scholars speculated that the Ashkenazi Jews of Europe originated among refugees who had migrated from the collapsed Khazarian Khanate westward into Europe. Though intermittently evoked by several scholars since that time, the Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication of Arthur Koestler 's The Thirteenth Tribe in 1976. It has been revived recently by geneticist Eran Elhaik , who in 2013 conducted a study aiming to vindicate it. Genetic studies on Jews have found no substantive evidence of a Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Geneticists such as Doron Behar and others (2013) have concluded that such a link is unlikely, noting that it is difficult to test the Khazar hypothesis using genetics because there is lack of clear modern descendants of the Khazars that could provide a clear test of the contribution to Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry, but found no genetic markers in Ashkenazi Jews that would link them to peoples of the Caucasus/Khazar area. Gil Atzmon et al. found evidence that the Ashkenazi have mixed Near Eastern and Southern European/Mediterranean origins, though some admixture with Khazar and Slavic populations after 100 CE was not excluded. Xue et al. note a wholly Khazar/Turkish/Middle Eastern origin is out of the question, given the complexity of Ashkenazi admixtures. Some anti-Zionists have cited the Khazar hypothesis in an attempt to discredit the claim by modern Jews to the Land of Israel . The Khazar hypothesis is also sometimes cited in antisemitic arguments promoted by adherents of various movements and ideologies to express the belief that modern Jews are not true descendants of the Israelites . ^ Cite error: The named reference Goldstein p.131 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Golden 2007a , p. 149. ^ Venton 2013 , p. 75. ^ Aderet 2014 . ^ Sand 2010 , p. 240.. ^ Elhaik 2013 . ^ Behar & et al. 2013 . ^ Atzmon & et al. 2010 : \"During Greco-Roman times, recorded mass conversions led to 6 million people practicing Judaism in Roman times or up to 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. Thus, the genetic proximity of these European/Syrian Jewish populations, including Ashkenazi Jews, to each other and to French, Northern Italian, and Sardinian populations favors the idea of non-Semitic Mediterranean ancestry in the formation of the European/Syrian Jewish groups and is incompatible with theories that Ashkenazi Jews are for the most part the direct lineal descendants of converted Khazars or Slavs. The genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to southern European populations has been observed in several other recent studies. Admixture with local populations, including Khazars and Slavs, may have occurred subsequently during the 1000 year (2nd millennium) history of the European Jews.\" ^ Xue et al. 2017 : \"AJ genetics defies simple demographic theories. Hypotheses such as a wholly Khazar, Turkish, or Middle-Eastern origin have been disqualified but even a model of a single Middle-Eastern and European admixture event cannot account for all of our observations. The actual admixture history might have been highly complex, including multiple geographic sources and admixture events. Moreover, due to the genetic similarity and complex history of the European populations involved (particularly in Southern Europe, the multiple paths of AJ migration across Europe [10], and the strong genetic drift experienced by AJ in the late Middle Ages, there seems to be a limit on the resolution to which the AJ admixture history can be reconstructed.\" ^ Cite error: The named reference Miller was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Barkun 2012 , p. 165. ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2003 , p. 237. ^ Cite error: The named reference Raphael was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Palestinian right of return",
   "pageid": 10575869,
   "revid_before": 1357148361,
   "revid_after": 1362307006,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-03T02:36:06Z",
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   "lead_before": "Political principle within the Israeli–Palestinian conflict sphere Not to be confused with the Israeli Law of Return . \"Al-Awda\" redirects here. For other uses, see Awda (disambiguation) . This artwork is titled Resolution 194 , after the namesake UN General Assembly resolution . The keys symbolize those kept as mementos by many Palestinians who fled or were expelled from their homes in 1948. Such keys and the Handala are common Palestinian symbols of support for the right of return. The Palestinian right of return is the political position or principle that Palestinian refugees , both first-generation refugees ( c. 30,000 to 50,000 people still alive as of 2012 ) and their descendants ( c. 5 million people as of 2012 ), have a right to return and a right to the property they themselves or their forebears left behind or were forced to leave in what is now Israel and the Palestinian territories (both formerly part of the British Mandate of Palestine ) during the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight (part of the 1948 Palestine war ) and the 1967 Six-Day War . The right of return was initially formulated on 27 June 1948 by United Nations mediator Folke Bernadotte . Proponents of the right of return hold that it is a human right , whose applicability both generally and specifically to the Palestinians is protected under international law . This view holds that those who opt not to return, or for whom return is not feasible, should receive compensation. Proponents argue that Israel's opposition stands in contrast with its Law of Return that grants all Jews the right to settle permanently, while withholding any comparable right from Palestinians. The government of Israel , and its supporters, state that Palestinian refugees do not have the right of return under international law. There is also significant concern about the demographic impact of the return of 5 million Palestinians to Israel, whose population is nearly 10 million. Some Palestinians, including Yasser Arafat , have supported limits on the right of return to accommodate Israel's demographic concerns. ^ Lavie, Aviv (12 August 2004). \"Right of remembrance\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 9 August 2014. ^ \"Palestinians mark Al-Naqba Day\" . CBC . 15 May 2005. ^ \"U.S. State Department Affirms Support for 5 Million 'Palestinian Refugees' \" . The Algemeiner . 30 May 2012 . Retrieved 31 May 2012 . [U.S.] Deputy Secretary of State Tom Nides (..) affirmed the State Department's view on the number of Palestinian refugees (..) that the UN and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) \"provides essential services for approximately 5 million refugees,\" (..) Middle East Forum founder Daniel Pipes recently noted in an op-ed for Israel Hayom that only 1 percent of the refugees served by UNRWA fit the agency's definition of \"people whose normal place of residence was Palestine between June 1946 and May 1948, who lost both their homes and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict.\" The other 99 percent are descendants of refugees. ^ Goldberg, Ari Ben (25 May 2012). \"US Senate dramatically scales down definition of Palestinian 'refugees' \" . The Times of Israel . Retrieved 13 March 2024 . According to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency – the main body tasked with providing assistance to Palestinian refugees – there are more than 5 million refugees at present. However, the number of Palestinians alive who were personally displaced during Israel's War of Independence is estimated to be around 30,000 ^ Adelman, Howard; Barkan, Elazar (2011). No Return, No Refuge: Rites and Rights in Minority Repatriation . Columbia University Press . p. 203. ISBN 978-0-231-15336-2 . As indicated earlier, the formulation of the right of return first appeared in Count Bernadotte's proposal of 27 June 1948... Bernadotte, who can correctly be viewed as the father of the right to return... But the murder of Bernadotte froze any further discussions on formulating a policy of resettlement. ^ Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 13 at WikiSource . ^ Abu-Laban, Yasmeen; Bakan, Abigail B. (9 September 2008). \"The racial contract: Israel/Palestine and Canada\". Social Identities . 14 (5): 637– 660. doi : 10.1080/13504630802343481 . S2CID 143510358 . ^ Lapidoth, Ruth (15 January 2001). \"Do Palestinian Refugees Have a Right to Return to Israel?\" . Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Retrieved 13 March 2024 . ^ \"Israel News – Online Israeli News Covering Israel & The Jewish World\" . The Jerusalem Post . 8 July 2012. {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ \"Resolving the Refugee Question: Key Issues\" . prrn.mcgill.ca . Retrieved 21 December 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Political principle within the Israeli–Palestinian conflict sphere Not to be confused with the Israeli Law of Return . \"Al-Awda\" redirects here. For other uses, see Awda (disambiguation) . This artwork is titled Resolution 194 , after the namesake UN General Assembly resolution . The keys symbolize those kept as mementos by many Palestinians who fled or were expelled from their homes in 1948. Such keys and the Handala are common Palestinian symbols of support for the right of return. The Palestinian right of return is the political position or principle that Palestinian refugees , both first-generation refugees ( c. 30,000 to 50,000 people still alive as of 2012 ) and their descendants ( c. 5 million people as of 2012 ), have a right to return and a right to the property they themselves or their forebears left behind or were forced to leave in what is now Israel and the Palestinian territories (both formerly part of the British Mandate of Palestine ) during the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight (part of the 1948 Palestine war ) and the 1967 Six-Day War . The right of return was initially formulated on 27 June 1948 by United Nations mediator Folke Bernadotte . Proponents of the right of return hold that it is a human right , whose applicability both generally and specifically to the Palestinians is protected under international law . This view holds that those who opt not to return, or for whom return is not feasible, should receive compensation. Proponents argue that Israel's opposition stands in contrast with its Law of Return that grants all Jews the right to settle permanently, while withholding any comparable right from Palestinians. The government of Israel , and its supporters, state that Palestinian refugees do not have the right of return under international law. There is also significant concern about the demographic impact of the return of 5 million Palestinians to Israel, whose population is nearly 10 million. Some Palestinians, including Yasser Arafat , have supported limits on the right of return to accommodate Israel's demographic concerns. ^ Lavie, Aviv (12 August 2004). \"Right of remembrance\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 9 August 2014. ^ \"Palestinians mark Al-Naqba Day\" . CBC . 15 May 2005. ^ \"U.S. State Department Affirms Support for 5 Million 'Palestinian Refugees' \" . The Algemeiner . 30 May 2012 . Retrieved 31 May 2012 . [U.S.] Deputy Secretary of State Tom Nides (..) affirmed the State Department's view on the number of Palestinian refugees (..) that the UN and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) \"provides essential services for approximately 5 million refugees,\" (..) Middle East Forum founder Daniel Pipes recently noted in an op-ed for Israel Hayom that only 1 percent of the refugees served by UNRWA fit the agency's definition of \"people whose normal place of residence was Palestine between June 1946 and May 1948, who lost both their homes and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict.\" The other 99 percent are descendants of refugees. ^ Goldberg, Ari Ben (25 May 2012). \"US Senate dramatically scales down definition of Palestinian 'refugees' \" . The Times of Israel . Retrieved 13 March 2024 . According to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency – the main body tasked with providing assistance to Palestinian refugees – there are more than 5 million refugees at present. However, the number of Palestinians alive who were personally displaced during Israel's War of Independence is estimated to be around 30,000 ^ Adelman, Howard; Barkan, Elazar (2011). No Return, No Refuge: Rites and Rights in Minority Repatriation . Columbia University Press . p. 203. ISBN 978-0-231-15336-2 . As indicated earlier, the formulation of the right of return first appeared in Count Bernadotte's proposal of 27 June 1948... Bernadotte, who can correctly be viewed as the father of the right to return... But the murder of Bernadotte froze any further discussions on formulating a policy of resettlement. ^ Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 13 at WikiSource . ^ Abu-Laban, Yasmeen; Bakan, Abigail B. (9 September 2008). \"The racial contract: Israel/Palestine and Canada\". Social Identities . 14 (5): 637– 660. doi : 10.1080/13504630802343481 . S2CID 143510358 . ^ Lapidoth, Ruth (15 January 2001). \"Do Palestinian Refugees Have a Right to Return to Israel?\" . Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs . Retrieved 13 March 2024 . ^ \"Israel News – Online Israeli News Covering Israel & The Jewish World\" . The Jerusalem Post . 8 July 2012. {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ \"Resolving the Refugee Question: Key Issues\" . prrn.mcgill.ca . Retrieved 21 December 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "List of ethnic cleansing campaigns",
   "pageid": 33350819,
   "revid_before": 1361002453,
   "revid_after": 1365846800,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-24T20:01:04Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_ethnic_cleansing_campaigns&oldid=1361002453",
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   "lead_before": "( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article lists incidents that have been termed ethnic cleansing by some academic or legal experts. Not all experts agree on every case, particularly since there are a variety of definitions of the term ethnic cleansing . Definitions cluster around the forced removal of all or a large number of an ethnic population from an area, or rendering an area ethnically homogenous. See the main article for further information. When claims of ethnic cleansing are made by non-experts (e.g. journalists or politicians) they are noted. There is significant scholarly disagreement around the definition of ethnic cleansing and which events fall under this classification. ^ Garrity, Meghan M (27 September 2023). \" \"Ethnic Cleansing\": An Analysis of Conceptual and Empirical Ambiguity\". Political Science Quarterly . 138 (4): 469– 489. doi : 10.1093/psquar/qqad082 .",
   "lead_after": "( Learn how and when to remove this message ) This article lists incidents that have been termed ethnic cleansing by some academic or legal experts. Not all experts agree on every case, particularly since there are a variety of definitions of the term ethnic cleansing . Definitions cluster around the forced removal of all or a large number of an ethnic population from an area, or rendering an area ethnically homogenous. See the main article for further information. When claims of ethnic cleansing are made by non-experts (e.g. journalists or politicians) they are noted. There is significant scholarly disagreement around the definition of ethnic cleansing and which events fall under this classification. ^ Garrity, Meghan M (27 September 2023). \" \"Ethnic Cleansing\": An Analysis of Conceptual and Empirical Ambiguity\". Political Science Quarterly . 138 (4): 469– 489. doi : 10.1093/psquar/qqad082 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Blockade of the Gaza Strip",
   "pageid": 19224310,
   "revid_before": 1360474004,
   "revid_after": 1365941337,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-25T09:24:07Z",
   "lead_changed": true,
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blockade_of_the_Gaza_Strip&oldid=1365941337",
   "lead_before": "Restriction of movement and trade by Israel and Egypt (2007–present) For the intensified blockade since 2023, see Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip (2023–present) . The Blockade of the Gaza Strip refers to Israeli and Egyptian restrictions on movement and goods in the Gaza Strip that began in the early 1990s. After Hamas took over in 2007, Israel significantly intensified existing movement restrictions and imposed a complete blockade on the movement of goods and people in and out of the Gaza Strip . In the same year, Egypt closed the Rafah border crossing . The blockade's stated aims are to prevent the smuggling of weapons into Gaza and exert economic pressure on Hamas. While the blockade's legality has not been adjudicated in court, human rights groups believe it would be deemed illegal and that it is a form of collective punishment , as it restricts the flow of essential goods, contributes to economic hardship, and limits Gazans' freedom of movement . The land, sea, and air blockade isolated Gaza from the rest of the occupied Palestinian territory and the world. The blockade and its effects have led to the territory being called an \"open-air prison\". Exit and entry into Gaza by sea or air is prohibited. There are only three crossings in and out of Gaza, two of them controlled by Israel and one by Egypt . Israel heavily regulates Palestinians' movement through Erez, with applications considered only for a small number of laborers (less than 5% of the number considered in 2000) and for limited medical and humanitarian reasons. Israel's military cooperation with Egypt and its control of the population registry (through which it controls who can obtain the necessary travel documents) gives it influence over movement through Rafah. Imports are heavily restricted, with \"dual use\" items permitted only as part of donor projects. This includes construction material and computer equipment. Exports are also heavily restricted, with the main impediment to economic development in Gaza being Israel's ban on virtually all exports from the Strip. Israel blockaded the Gaza Strip at various levels of intensity in 2005–2006. Israeli-imposed closures date to 1991. In 2007, after Hamas seized control of the Gaza Strip , Israel imposed an indefinite blockade of Gaza that remains in place, on the grounds that Fatah and Palestinian Authority forces had fled the Strip and were no longer able to provide security on the Palestinian side. Israel has said the blockade is necessary to protect itself from Palestinian political violence and rocket attacks , and to prevent dual use goods from entering Gaza. Israel has been accused of violating or failing to fulfill specific obligations it has under various ceasefire agreements to alleviate or lift the blockade. \"Crossings were repeatedly shut and buffer zones were reinstated. Imports declined, exports were blocked, and fewer Gazans were given exit permits to Israel and the West Bank.\" Human rights groups, international community representatives, and legal professionals have decried the blockade as a form of collective punishment in contravention of international law, specifically the Fourth Geneva Convention . Rights groups have held Israel mainly responsible as the occupying power . ^ \"Light at the End of Their Tunnels? Hamas and the Arab Uprisings\" (PDF) . International Crisis Group . 14 August 2012. p. 38, note 283. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 September 2012 . Retrieved 18 January 2024 . The prime minister is comfortable with limited economic growth in Gaza, particularly as a way to modify Hamas's urge to get into trouble. We still want there to be a discrepancy between economic life in Gaza and the West Bank, but we no longer feel it needs to be so large. ^ \"Gaza Up Close\" . Gisha – Legal Center for Freedom of Movement . 2023. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024 . Retrieved 18 January 2024 . ^ \"Egypt to reopen Gaza strip crossing for first time since 2007\" . The Guardian . 25 May 2011. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 12 October 2024 . ^ \"Palmer Report Did Not Find Gaza Blockade Legal, Despite Media Headlines\" . Amnesty International USA . 6 September 2011. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023 . Retrieved 18 January 2024 . ^ \"The Gaza Strip | The humanitarian impact of 15 years of blockade – June 2022\" . www.unicef.org . Archived from the original on 6 March 2025 . Retrieved 8 March 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference open-air prison was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference britannica was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Exits by Palestinians from Gaza via Erez Crossing – Gisha. (26 December 2023). Retrieved from https://gisha.org/en/exits-by-palestinians-via-erez-crossing-to-israel-the-west-bank-and-abroad Archived 1 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine ^ FAQs – Gisha. (2023, 26 November). Retrieved from https://gisha.org/en/faqs Archived 7 November 2023 at the Wayback Machine ^ The Gaza Strip: The Political Economy of De-development, 3rd ed., by Sara Roy.Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 2016. ^ El-Prince, Maryam (13 November 2023). \"Gaza Conflict Cascading Effects: The Rafah Question\" . The Cairo Review of Global Affairs . Archived from the original on 26 January 2025 . Retrieved 4 December 2023 . ^ \"Israel halts talks with P.A on Bus convoys between Gaza and W. Bank\" . International Middle East Media Center . 8 December 2005. Archived from the original on 13 November 2024 . Retrieved 4 December 2023 . ^ \"Israel threatens Gaza siege\" . Al Jazeera . 9 December 2005. Archived from the original on 2 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 December 2023 . ^ \"Landmark day on Gaza-Egypt border\" . BBC News . 26 November 2005. Archived from the original on 1 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 December 2023 . ^ \"Explainer: Gaza – One Of The Most Densely Populated Places On Earth Scarred By War\" . NDTV.com . Archived from the original on 8 October 2023 . Retrieved 7 January 2024 . ^ Kershner, Isabel (14 December 2007). \"Abbas's Premier Tells Israel to Reopen Gaza\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 30 November 2011. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ynet Cabinet was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Jones, Stephen (22 January 2009). \"Gaza: The conflict between Israel and Hamas\" (PDF) . House of Commons Library . ^ \"Gaza: Israel Hamas ceasefire agreement in full\" . The Daily Telegraph . 2012. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . ^ Page, Rob (2014). \"Gaza ceasefire agreement\" (PDF) . House of Commons Library . Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2018 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . ^ \"Conditions for a ceasefire: Why Hamas fires those rockets\" . The Economist . 19 July 2014. Archived from the original on 22 July 2014 . Retrieved 22 July 2014 . After the last big Israeli effort to stop the rockets, in November 2012, it was agreed that, along with a ceasefire, the blockade of Gaza would gradually be lifted and the crossings into Egypt and Israel would be opened. The ceasefire generally held, but the siege continued. ^ Sherwood, Harriet (30 November 2010). \"Israel accused over 'cruel' Gaza blockade\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. According to today's report, Dashed Hopes: Continuation of the Gaza Blockade, imports of construction materials are 11% of the 2007 pre-blockade levels. Despite having agreed to allow in materials for the United Nations Relief and Works Agency to rebuild its schools and clinics damaged or destroyed in the three-week war in 2008–09, Israel has permitted only 7% of the necessary amount. ^ Hartberg, Martin (2012). Beyond Ceasefire: Ending the blockade of Gaza . Oxfam . p. 2. ISBN 978-1-78077-229-5 . ^ Ian Bickerton, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Guide for the Perplexed, A&C Black , 2012 p.238:'In June 2008 Israel increased the severity of the blockade after Egypt brokered a ceasefire . .'The exchange of rockets launched a retaliatory aerial assaults increased late in 2008 with Hamas and Israeli blaming each other for a breakdown in the ceasefire. The evidence suggests Israel broke the ceasefire with a raid into the Gaza Strip that killed six Hamas men on 4 Novembneer- the night of the presidential election in the USA. ^ Noam Chomsky , in Elliot N. Dorff, Danya Ruttenberg, Louis E Newman (eds.), Jewish Choices, Jewish Voices: War and National Security Archived 18 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Jewish Publication Society , 2010 p.26 :'There were some partial ceasefires. But Israel maintained the siege and then violated ceasefire agreements directly. The most important instance of this was in 2008. Right before the Israeli invasion, there was a ceasefire. It was observed completely by Hamas. The Israeli government concedes that there was not a single Hamas rocket fired during the ceasefire. Israel nevertheless maintained the siege, and in November 2008, Israeli just invaded Gaza outright and killed half a dozen Hamas activists. After that, rockets started.' ^ Thrall, Nathan (21 August 2014). \"Hamas's Chances\" . London Review of Books . Vol. 36, no. 16. pp. 10– 12. Archived from the original on 19 June 2018. with 21 November 2012 ceasefire agreement Israel undertook to 'end attacks against Gaza by land, sea and air – including the 'targeting of individuals' (assassinations, typically by drone-fired missile) – and that the closure of Gaza would essentially end as a result of Israel's 'opening the crossings and facilitating the movements of people and transfer of goods, and refraining from restricting residents' free movements and targeting residents in border areas' but Israel therefore saw little incentive in upholding its end of the deal. In the three months following the ceasefire, its forces made regular incursions into Gaza, strafed Palestinian farmers and those collecting scrap and rubble across the border, and fired at boats, preventing fishermen from accessing the majority of Gaza's waters. . . Israel had committed to holding indirect negotiations with Hamas over the implementation of the ceasefire but repeatedly delayed them . . The talks never took place. The lesson for Hamas was clear. Even if an agreement was brokered by the US and Egypt, Israel could still fail to honour it. ^ Withnall, Adam (14 August 2014). \"Israel-Gaza conflict: Israel 'breaks ceasefire in minutes' as eight-year-old girl killed in air strike\" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. ^ Munayyer, Yousef (2014). \"Israel/Gaza Cease-Fire Dynamics Breakdown\" . The Jerusalem Fund . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. ^ Cite error: The named reference HRW111 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Gaza closure: not another year! was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Restriction of movement and trade by Israel and Egypt (2007–present) For the intensified blockade since 2023, see Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip (2023–present) . The restrictions on movement and goods in the Gaza Strip imposed by Israel date to the early 1990s. After Hamas took over in 2007, Israel significantly intensified existing movement restrictions and imposed a complete blockade on the movement of goods and people in and out of the Gaza Strip . In the same year, Egypt closed the Rafah border crossing . The blockade's stated aims are to prevent the smuggling of weapons into Gaza and exert economic pressure on Hamas. While the blockade's legality has not been adjudicated in court, human rights groups believe it would be deemed illegal and that it is a form of collective punishment , as it restricts the flow of essential goods, contributes to economic hardship, and limits Gazans' freedom of movement . The land, sea, and air blockade isolated Gaza from the rest of the occupied Palestinian territory and the world. The blockade and its effects have led to the territory being called an \"open-air prison\". Exit and entry into Gaza by sea or air is prohibited. There are only three crossings in and out of Gaza, two of them controlled by Israel and one by Egypt . Israel heavily regulates Palestinians' movement through Erez, with applications considered only for a small number of laborers (less than 5% of the number considered in 2000) and for limited medical and humanitarian reasons. Israel's military cooperation with Egypt and its control of the population registry (through which it controls who can obtain the necessary travel documents) gives it influence over movement through Rafah. Imports are heavily restricted, with \"dual use\" items permitted only as part of donor projects. This includes construction material and computer equipment. Exports are also heavily restricted, with the main impediment to economic development in Gaza being Israel's ban on virtually all exports from the Strip. Israel blockaded the Gaza Strip at various levels of intensity in 2005–2006. Israeli-imposed closures date to 1991. In 2007, after Hamas seized control of the Gaza Strip , Israel imposed an indefinite blockade of Gaza that remains in place, on the grounds that Fatah and Palestinian Authority forces had fled the Strip and were no longer able to provide security on the Palestinian side. Israel has said the blockade is necessary to protect itself from Palestinian political violence and rocket attacks , and to prevent dual use goods from entering Gaza. Israel has been accused of violating or failing to fulfill specific obligations it has under various ceasefire agreements to alleviate or lift the blockade. \"Crossings were repeatedly shut and buffer zones were reinstated. Imports declined, exports were blocked, and fewer Gazans were given exit permits to Israel and the West Bank.\" Human rights groups, international community representatives, and legal professionals have decried the blockade as a form of collective punishment in contravention of international law, specifically the Fourth Geneva Convention . Rights groups have held Israel mainly responsible as the occupying power . ^ \"Light at the End of Their Tunnels? Hamas and the Arab Uprisings\" (PDF) . International Crisis Group . 14 August 2012. p. 38, note 283. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 September 2012 . Retrieved 18 January 2024 . The prime minister is comfortable with limited economic growth in Gaza, particularly as a way to modify Hamas's urge to get into trouble. We still want there to be a discrepancy between economic life in Gaza and the West Bank, but we no longer feel it needs to be so large. ^ \"Gaza Up Close\" . Gisha – Legal Center for Freedom of Movement . 2023. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024 . Retrieved 18 January 2024 . ^ \"Egypt to reopen Gaza strip crossing for first time since 2007\" . The Guardian . 25 May 2011. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 12 October 2024 . ^ \"Palmer Report Did Not Find Gaza Blockade Legal, Despite Media Headlines\" . Amnesty International USA . 6 September 2011. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023 . Retrieved 18 January 2024 . ^ \"The Gaza Strip | The humanitarian impact of 15 years of blockade – June 2022\" . www.unicef.org . Archived from the original on 6 March 2025 . Retrieved 8 March 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference open-air prison was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference britannica was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Exits by Palestinians from Gaza via Erez Crossing – Gisha. (26 December 2023). Retrieved from https://gisha.org/en/exits-by-palestinians-via-erez-crossing-to-israel-the-west-bank-and-abroad Archived 1 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine ^ FAQs – Gisha. (2023, 26 November). Retrieved from https://gisha.org/en/faqs Archived 7 November 2023 at the Wayback Machine ^ The Gaza Strip: The Political Economy of De-development, 3rd ed., by Sara Roy.Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 2016. ^ El-Prince, Maryam (13 November 2023). \"Gaza Conflict Cascading Effects: The Rafah Question\" . The Cairo Review of Global Affairs . Archived from the original on 26 January 2025 . Retrieved 4 December 2023 . ^ \"Israel halts talks with P.A on Bus convoys between Gaza and W. Bank\" . International Middle East Media Center . 8 December 2005. Archived from the original on 13 November 2024 . Retrieved 4 December 2023 . ^ \"Israel threatens Gaza siege\" . Al Jazeera . 9 December 2005. Archived from the original on 2 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 December 2023 . ^ \"Landmark day on Gaza-Egypt border\" . BBC News . 26 November 2005. Archived from the original on 1 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 December 2023 . ^ \"Explainer: Gaza – One Of The Most Densely Populated Places On Earth Scarred By War\" . NDTV.com . Archived from the original on 8 October 2023 . Retrieved 7 January 2024 . ^ Kershner, Isabel (14 December 2007). \"Abbas's Premier Tells Israel to Reopen Gaza\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 30 November 2011. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ynet Cabinet was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Jones, Stephen (22 January 2009). \"Gaza: The conflict between Israel and Hamas\" (PDF) . House of Commons Library . ^ \"Gaza: Israel Hamas ceasefire agreement in full\" . The Daily Telegraph . 2012. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . ^ Page, Rob (2014). \"Gaza ceasefire agreement\" (PDF) . House of Commons Library . Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2018 . Retrieved 22 June 2018 . ^ \"Conditions for a ceasefire: Why Hamas fires those rockets\" . The Economist . 19 July 2014. Archived from the original on 22 July 2014 . Retrieved 22 July 2014 . After the last big Israeli effort to stop the rockets, in November 2012, it was agreed that, along with a ceasefire, the blockade of Gaza would gradually be lifted and the crossings into Egypt and Israel would be opened. The ceasefire generally held, but the siege continued. ^ Sherwood, Harriet (30 November 2010). \"Israel accused over 'cruel' Gaza blockade\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. According to today's report, Dashed Hopes: Continuation of the Gaza Blockade, imports of construction materials are 11% of the 2007 pre-blockade levels. Despite having agreed to allow in materials for the United Nations Relief and Works Agency to rebuild its schools and clinics damaged or destroyed in the three-week war in 2008–09, Israel has permitted only 7% of the necessary amount. ^ Hartberg, Martin (2012). Beyond Ceasefire: Ending the blockade of Gaza . Oxfam . p. 2. ISBN 978-1-78077-229-5 . ^ Ian Bickerton, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Guide for the Perplexed, A&C Black , 2012 p.238:'In June 2008 Israel increased the severity of the blockade after Egypt brokered a ceasefire . .'The exchange of rockets launched a retaliatory aerial assaults increased late in 2008 with Hamas and Israeli blaming each other for a breakdown in the ceasefire. The evidence suggests Israel broke the ceasefire with a raid into the Gaza Strip that killed six Hamas men on 4 Novembneer- the night of the presidential election in the USA. ^ Noam Chomsky , in Elliot N. Dorff, Danya Ruttenberg, Louis E Newman (eds.), Jewish Choices, Jewish Voices: War and National Security Archived 18 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Jewish Publication Society , 2010 p.26 :'There were some partial ceasefires. But Israel maintained the siege and then violated ceasefire agreements directly. The most important instance of this was in 2008. Right before the Israeli invasion, there was a ceasefire. It was observed completely by Hamas. The Israeli government concedes that there was not a single Hamas rocket fired during the ceasefire. Israel nevertheless maintained the siege, and in November 2008, Israeli just invaded Gaza outright and killed half a dozen Hamas activists. After that, rockets started.' ^ Thrall, Nathan (21 August 2014). \"Hamas's Chances\" . London Review of Books . Vol. 36, no. 16. pp. 10– 12. Archived from the original on 19 June 2018. with 21 November 2012 ceasefire agreement Israel undertook to 'end attacks against Gaza by land, sea and air – including the 'targeting of individuals' (assassinations, typically by drone-fired missile) – and that the closure of Gaza would essentially end as a result of Israel's 'opening the crossings and facilitating the movements of people and transfer of goods, and refraining from restricting residents' free movements and targeting residents in border areas' but Israel therefore saw little incentive in upholding its end of the deal. In the three months following the ceasefire, its forces made regular incursions into Gaza, strafed Palestinian farmers and those collecting scrap and rubble across the border, and fired at boats, preventing fishermen from accessing the majority of Gaza's waters. . . Israel had committed to holding indirect negotiations with Hamas over the implementation of the ceasefire but repeatedly delayed them . . The talks never took place. The lesson for Hamas was clear. Even if an agreement was brokered by the US and Egypt, Israel could still fail to honour it. ^ Withnall, Adam (14 August 2014). \"Israel-Gaza conflict: Israel 'breaks ceasefire in minutes' as eight-year-old girl killed in air strike\" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. ^ Munayyer, Yousef (2014). \"Israel/Gaza Cease-Fire Dynamics Breakdown\" . The Jerusalem Fund . Archived from the original on 21 June 2018. ^ Cite error: The named reference HRW111 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Gaza closure: not another year! was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Yahya Sinwar",
   "pageid": 53195047,
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   "lead_before": "Palestinian militant and politician (1962–2024) \"Sinwar\" redirects here. For his brother, see Mohammed Sinwar . Yahya Ibrahim Hassan Sinwar ( Arabic : يحيى إبراهيم حسن السنوار , romanized : Yaḥyá Ibrāhīm Ḥasan as-Sinwār ; 29 October 1962 – 16 October 2024) was a Palestinian militant and politician who served as fourth chairman of the Hamas Political Bureau from August 2024, and as the second leader of Hamas in the Gaza Strip from February 2017 until he was killed in a clash with the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in October 2024. He succeeded Ismail Haniyeh in both roles. Sinwar was born in the Khan Yunis refugee camp in Egyptian-occupied Gaza in 1962 to a family who had been expelled or fled from Majdal 'Asqalan during the 1948 Palestine War . He finished his studies at the Islamic University of Gaza , where he received a bachelor's degree in Arabic studies. In 1989, Sinwar was sentenced to four life sentences in Israel for orchestrating the abduction and killing of two Israeli soldiers and four Palestinians he considered to be collaborators. He spent 22 years in prison until his release among 1,026 others in a 2011 prisoner exchange for Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit . During his time in prison, Sinwar continued to coordinate the military activities of Hamas. Sinwar was one of the co-founders of the security apparatus of Hamas. In 2017, Sinwar was elected as the leader of Hamas in Gaza and claimed to pursue \"peaceful, popular resistance\" the following year, supporting the 2018–2019 Gaza border protests , though he was also reported to have been dedicated to eradicating Israel and was said to have seen military confrontation as the only path to \"liberating Palestine\", saying that this would be achieved \"by force, not negotiations\". He also developed strong ties with Iran . Re-elected as Hamas leader in 2021, Sinwar survived an assassination attempt by Israel that same year. He was widely regarded as the mastermind behind the October 7 attacks in 2023, which was followed by the Gaza war that spilled over to other parts of the Middle East. Hamas and the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades have been designated terrorist organisations by the United States , the European Union , and other countries, and in September 2015, Sinwar was specifically designated a terrorist by the United States government. In May 2024, Karim Khan , the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court , announced his intention to apply for an arrest warrant for Sinwar for war crimes and crimes against humanity , as part of the ICC investigation in Palestine . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Israeli occupation's threats against Hamas officials reflect political impasse\" . Hamas . 25 September 2022. Archived from the original on 27 February 2023 . Retrieved 27 February 2023 . ^ \"Hamas Has Another Sinwar. And He's Rebuilding\" . The Wall Street Journal . 13 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2025 . ^ https://www.sadanews.ps/en/news/242473.html ^ https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/1656824 ^ https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/414847 ^ https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-said-set-to-elect-new-leader-soon-with-pro-iran-candidate-hayya-likely-to-win/ ^ ^ \"Hamas names Yahya Sinwar as new leader after Ismail Haniyeh's killing\" . Al Jazeera English . Archived from the original on 6 August 2024 . Retrieved 6 August 2024 . ^ Beaumont, Peter (13 February 2017). \"Hamas elects hardliner Yahya Sinwar as its Gaza Strip chief\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. ^ Balousha, Hazam; Booth, William (13 February 2017). \"Hamas names hard-liner as its new political leader in Gaza\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. ^ \"Yahya Sinwar\" . Britannica . 28 January 2024. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024 . Retrieved 1 February 2024 . ^ \"Who is the Hamas leader in Gaza, Yahya Sinwar?\" . BBC News . 21 November 2023. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024 . Retrieved 1 February 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Becker was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Repaying a debt with blood: Israeli doctor saved Sinwar, nephew killed on Oct. 7\" . The Jerusalem Post . 21 June 2024 . Retrieved 17 October 2024 . ^ \"Terrorist Designations of Yahya Sinwar, Rawhi Mushtaha, and Muhammed Deif\" . United States Department of State . 8 September 2015. Archived from the original on 21 January 2017 . Retrieved 27 May 2019 . ^ \"The Palestinians try to reconcile\" . The Economist . 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018 . Retrieved 10 October 2017 . Kottasová, Ivana; Shortell, David (7 December 2023). \"Who is Yahya Sinwar, the Hamas leader Israel has called a 'dead man walking' \" . CNN . Archived from the original on 7 April 2024 . Retrieved 28 March 2024 . Morris, Loveday; Balousha, Hazem (11 December 2023). \"Who is Hamas leader Yehiya Sinwar: From enforcer to Oct. 7 mastermind\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 27 March 2024 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Cite error: The named reference Economist 2018-05-26 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hamas leader Sinwar killed by Israeli troops in Gaza, Netanyahu says war will go on\" . Reuters . ^ Morris, Loveday; Balousha, Hazem (17 October 2024). \"Who was Hamas leader Yahya Sinwar? From enforcer to architect of Oct. 7\" . The Washington Post . ^ \"Yahya Sinwar, the Hamas leader committed to eradicating Israel\" . Reuters . ^ Said, Summer; Jones, Rory (7 August 2024). \"Sinwar Power Grab Cements Hamas-Iran Ties\" . The Wall Street Journal . ^ \"Hamas's pick of Yahya Sinwar as leader makes a ceasefire less likely\" . The Economist . 6 August 2024. ISSN 0013-0613 . Retrieved 10 August 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Abualouf was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Mroue was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Vasilyeva, Nataliya (20 November 2023). \"Mastermind behind Hamas attacks personally handling hostage negotiations\" . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on 7 April 2024 . Retrieved 13 April 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Estrin was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kingsley, Patrick; Barnes, Julian E.; Rasgon, Adam (12 May 2024). \"Yahya Sinwar Helped Start the War in Gaza. Now He's Key to Its Endgame\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on 13 May 2024 . Retrieved 13 May 2024 . ^ Peled, Anat; Lieber, Dov; Keller-Lynn, Carrie; Said, Summer (18 October 2024). \"After a Yearlong Hunt, Sinwar's Killing Came Down to Chance\" . The Wall Street Journal . ^ Kottasová, Ivana (20 May 2024). \"EXCLUSIVE: ICC seeks arrest warrants against Sinwar and Netanyahu for war crimes over October 7 attack and Gaza war\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 .",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian militant and politician (1962–2024) \"Sinwar\" redirects here. For his brother, see Mohammed Sinwar . For his family, see Sinwar family . Yahya Ibrahim Hassan Sinwar ( Arabic : يحيى إبراهيم حسن السنوار , romanized : Yaḥyá Ibrāhīm Ḥasan as-Sinwār ; 29 October 1962 – 16 October 2024) was a Palestinian politician and militant. He served as the fourth chairman of the Hamas Political Bureau from August 2024, and as the second leader of Hamas in the Gaza Strip from February 2017. He succeeded Ismail Haniyeh in both roles. Sinwar was born in the Khan Yunis refugee camp in Egyptian-occupied Gaza in 1962 to a family who had been expelled or fled from Majdal 'Asqalan during the 1948 Palestine War . He finished his studies at the Islamic University of Gaza , where he received a bachelor's degree in Arabic studies. In 1989, Sinwar was sentenced to four life sentences in Israel for orchestrating the abduction and killing of two Israeli soldiers and four Palestinians he considered to be collaborators. He spent 22 years in prison until his release among 1,026 others in a 2011 prisoner exchange for Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit . During his time in prison, Sinwar continued to coordinate the military activities of Hamas. Sinwar was one of the co-founders of the security apparatus of Hamas. In 2017, Sinwar was elected as the leader of Hamas in Gaza and claimed to pursue \"peaceful, popular resistance\" the following year, supporting the 2018–2019 Gaza border protests , though he was also reported to have been dedicated to eradicating Israel and was said to have seen military confrontation as the only path to \"liberating Palestine\", saying that this would be achieved \"by force, not negotiations\". He also developed strong ties with Iran . Re-elected as Hamas leader in 2021, Sinwar survived an assassination attempt by Israel that same year. He was widely regarded as the mastermind behind the October 7 attacks in 2023, which was followed by the Gaza war that spilled over to other parts of the Middle East. He was killed in a clash with the Israel Defense Forces in October 2024. In September 2015 Sinwar was specifically designated a terrorist by the United States government. In May 2024, Karim Khan , the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court , announced his intention to apply for an arrest warrant for Sinwar for war crimes and crimes against humanity , as part of the ICC investigation in Palestine . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Israeli occupation's threats against Hamas officials reflect political impasse\" . Hamas . 25 September 2022. Archived from the original on 27 February 2023 . Retrieved 27 February 2023 . ^ \"Hamas Has Another Sinwar. And He's Rebuilding\" . The Wall Street Journal . 13 January 2025 . Retrieved 14 January 2025 . ^ https://www.sadanews.ps/en/news/242473.html ^ https://www.palestine-studies.org/en/node/1656824 ^ https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/414847 ^ https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-said-set-to-elect-new-leader-soon-with-pro-iran-candidate-hayya-likely-to-win/ ^ ^ \"Hamas names Yahya Sinwar as new leader after Ismail Haniyeh's killing\" . Al Jazeera English . Archived from the original on 6 August 2024 . Retrieved 6 August 2024 . ^ Beaumont, Peter (13 February 2017). \"Hamas elects hardliner Yahya Sinwar as its Gaza Strip chief\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 13 February 2017. ^ Balousha, Hazam; Booth, William (13 February 2017). \"Hamas names hard-liner as its new political leader in Gaza\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. ^ \"Yahya Sinwar\" . Britannica . 28 January 2024. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024 . Retrieved 1 February 2024 . ^ \"Who is the Hamas leader in Gaza, Yahya Sinwar?\" . BBC News . 21 November 2023. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024 . Retrieved 1 February 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Becker was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Repaying a debt with blood: Israeli doctor saved Sinwar, nephew killed on Oct. 7\" . The Jerusalem Post . 21 June 2024 . Retrieved 17 October 2024 . ^ \"Terrorist Designations of Yahya Sinwar, Rawhi Mushtaha, and Muhammed Deif\" . United States Department of State . 8 September 2015. Archived from the original on 21 January 2017 . Retrieved 27 May 2019 . ^ \"The Palestinians try to reconcile\" . The Economist . 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018 . Retrieved 10 October 2017 . Kottasová, Ivana; Shortell, David (7 December 2023). \"Who is Yahya Sinwar, the Hamas leader Israel has called a 'dead man walking' \" . CNN . Archived from the original on 7 April 2024 . Retrieved 28 March 2024 . Morris, Loveday; Balousha, Hazem (11 December 2023). \"Who is Hamas leader Yehiya Sinwar: From enforcer to Oct. 7 mastermind\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 27 March 2024 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Cite error: The named reference Economist 2018-05-26 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hamas leader Sinwar killed by Israeli troops in Gaza, Netanyahu says war will go on\" . Reuters . ^ Morris, Loveday; Balousha, Hazem (17 October 2024). \"Who was Hamas leader Yahya Sinwar? From enforcer to architect of Oct. 7\" . The Washington Post . ^ \"Yahya Sinwar, the Hamas leader committed to eradicating Israel\" . Reuters . ^ Said, Summer; Jones, Rory (7 August 2024). \"Sinwar Power Grab Cements Hamas-Iran Ties\" . The Wall Street Journal . ^ \"Hamas's pick of Yahya Sinwar as leader makes a ceasefire less likely\" . The Economist . 6 August 2024. ISSN 0013-0613 . Retrieved 10 August 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Abualouf was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Mroue was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Vasilyeva, Nataliya (20 November 2023). \"Mastermind behind Hamas attacks personally handling hostage negotiations\" . The Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on 7 April 2024 . Retrieved 13 April 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Estrin was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kingsley, Patrick; Barnes, Julian E.; Rasgon, Adam (12 May 2024). \"Yahya Sinwar Helped Start the War in Gaza. Now He's Key to Its Endgame\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Archived from the original on 13 May 2024 . Retrieved 13 May 2024 . ^ Peled, Anat; Lieber, Dov; Keller-Lynn, Carrie; Said, Summer (18 October 2024). \"After a Yearlong Hunt, Sinwar's Killing Came Down to Chance\" . The Wall Street Journal . ^ Kottasová, Ivana (20 May 2024). \"EXCLUSIVE: ICC seeks arrest warrants against Sinwar and Netanyahu for war crimes over October 7 attack and Gaza war\" . CNN . Archived from the original on 20 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 May 2024 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Holocaust trivialization",
   "pageid": 13411775,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-22T17:34:24Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holocaust_trivialization&oldid=1357224093",
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   "lead_before": "Inappropriate comparisons or analogies that trivialize the Holocaust Holocaust trivialization is the act of making comparisons that diminish the scale and severity of the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany . The Wiesel Commission defines trivialization as the abusive use of comparisons with the aim of minimizing the Holocaust and banalizing its atrocities. Manfred Gerstenfeld identifies trivialization of the Holocaust as one of eleven forms of Holocaust distortion; he defines Holocaust trivialization as the application of language that is specific to describing the Holocaust to events and purposes that are unrelated to it. According to Gerstenfeld, such unrelated issues include environmental problems, abortion, killing of animals, tobacco consumption, and human rights abuses. According to David Rudrum, examples of Holocaust trivialization include Lord Wigley invoking Auschwitz to oppose nuclear weapons and Al Gore citing Kristallnacht in defence of the environment. German political scientist Clemens Heni [ de ] writes: \"Contrary to the hard-core version, soft-core denial is often not easily identifiable. Often it is tolerated, or even encouraged and reproduced in the mainstream, not only in Germany. Scholars have only recently begun to unravel this disturbing phenomenon. Manfred Gerstenfeld discusses Holocaust trivialization in an article published in 2008. In Germany in 2007 two scholars, Thorsten Eitz and Georg Stötzel, published a voluminous dictionary of German language and discourse regarding National Socialism and the Holocaust. It includes chapters on Holocaust trivialization and contrived comparisons, such as the infamous 'atomic Holocaust', 'Babycaust,' 'Holocaust of abortion', 'red Holocaust' or 'biological Holocaust.'\" The Holocaust survivor and memoirist Elie Wiesel wrote, \"I cannot use [the word Holocaust ] anymore. First, because there are no words, and also because it has become so trivialized that I cannot use it anymore. Whatever mishap occurs now, they call it 'holocaust.' I have seen it myself in television in the country in which I live. A commentator describing the defeat of a sports team, somewhere, called it a 'holocaust.' I have read in a very prestigious newspaper published in California, a description of the murder of six people, and the author called it a holocaust. So, I have no words anymore.\" ^ Foxman, Abraham H. (27 January 2014). \"Inappropriate Comparisons Trivialize the Holocaust\" . Anti-Defamation League . Retrieved 9 January 2022 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Wiesel Commission 2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Gerstenfeld, Manfred (28 October 2007). \"The Multiple Distortions of Holocaust Memory\" . Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024 . Retrieved 2 December 2020 . ^ Gerstenfeld, Manfred (14 March 2018). \"The Ongoing Major Distortion of the Holocaust\" . Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs . Retrieved 16 July 2025 . ^ Rudrum, David (16 March 2021). \"Why Holocaust Trivialisation Isn't Trivial\" . The Holocaust Exhibition and Learning Centre. Archived from the original on 13 March 2023 . Retrieved 10 January 2022 . ^ Heni, Clemens (Fall 2008). \"Secondary Anti-Semitism: From Hard-Core to Soft-Core Denial of the Shoah\". Jewish Political Studies Review . 20 (3/4). Jerusalem: 73– 92. JSTOR 25834800 . ^ Cohen, Asher; Gelber, Joav; Wardi, Charlotte, eds. (1988). Comprehending the Holocaust: Historical and Literary Research . Bern: Peter Lang. p. 13. ISBN 978-3-63-140428-7 . Retrieved 2 December 2020 – via Google Books.",
   "lead_after": "Inappropriate comparisons or analogies that trivialize the Holocaust Holocaust trivialization is the act of making comparisons that diminish the scale and severity of the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany . The Wiesel Commission defines trivialization as the abusive use of comparisons with the aim of minimizing the Holocaust and banalizing its atrocities. Manfred Gerstenfeld identifies trivialization of the Holocaust as one of eleven forms of Holocaust distortion ; he defines Holocaust trivialization as the application of language that is specific to describing the Holocaust to events and purposes that are unrelated to it. According to Gerstenfeld, such unrelated issues include environmental problems, abortion, killing of animals, tobacco consumption, and human rights abuses. According to David Rudrum, examples of Holocaust trivialization include Lord Wigley invoking Auschwitz to oppose nuclear weapons and Al Gore citing Kristallnacht in defence of the environment. German political scientist Clemens Heni [ de ] writes: \"Contrary to the hard-core version, soft-core denial is often not easily identifiable. Often it is tolerated, or even encouraged and reproduced in the mainstream, not only in Germany. Scholars have only recently begun to unravel this disturbing phenomenon. Manfred Gerstenfeld discusses Holocaust trivialization in an article published in 2008. In Germany in 2007 two scholars, Thorsten Eitz and Georg Stötzel, published a voluminous dictionary of German language and discourse regarding National Socialism and the Holocaust. It includes chapters on Holocaust trivialization and contrived comparisons, such as the infamous 'atomic Holocaust', 'Babycaust,' 'Holocaust of abortion', 'red Holocaust' or 'biological Holocaust.'\" The Holocaust survivor and memoirist Elie Wiesel wrote, \"I cannot use [the word Holocaust ] anymore. First, because there are no words, and also because it has become so trivialized that I cannot use it anymore. Whatever mishap occurs now, they call it 'holocaust.' I have seen it myself in television in the country in which I live. A commentator describing the defeat of a sports team, somewhere, called it a 'holocaust.' I have read in a very prestigious newspaper published in California, a description of the murder of six people, and the author called it a holocaust. So, I have no words anymore.\" ^ Foxman, Abraham H. (27 January 2014). \"Inappropriate Comparisons Trivialize the Holocaust\" . Anti-Defamation League . Retrieved 9 January 2022 . ^ Friling, Tuvia; Ioanid, Radu; Ionescu, Mihail E.; Benjamin, Lya (2004). Distortion, negationism and minimization of the Holocaust in postwar Romania (PDF) . International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania. pp. 47, 59 – via United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . ^ Gerstenfeld, Manfred (28 October 2007). \"The Multiple Distortions of Holocaust Memory\" . Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024 . Retrieved 2 December 2020 . ^ Gerstenfeld, Manfred (14 March 2018). \"The Ongoing Major Distortion of the Holocaust\" . Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs . Retrieved 16 July 2025 . ^ Rudrum, David (16 March 2021). \"Why Holocaust Trivialisation Isn't Trivial\" . The Holocaust Exhibition and Learning Centre. Archived from the original on 13 March 2023 . Retrieved 10 January 2022 . ^ Heni, Clemens (Fall 2008). \"Secondary Anti-Semitism: From Hard-Core to Soft-Core Denial of the Shoah\". Jewish Political Studies Review . 20 (3/4). Jerusalem: 73– 92. JSTOR 25834800 . ^ Cohen, Asher; Gelber, Joav; Wardi, Charlotte, eds. (1988). Comprehending the Holocaust: Historical and Literary Research . Bern: Peter Lang. p. 13. ISBN 978-3-63-140428-7 . Retrieved 2 December 2020 – via Google Books."
  },
  {
   "title": "Targeted killing",
   "pageid": 33928336,
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   "lead_before": "Extrajudicial assassination by governments Modern targeted killings are frequently performed using unmanned combat aerial vehicles like the MQ-9 Reaper . Targeted killing is a form of assassination carried out by governments outside a judicial procedure or a battlefield . Since the late 20th century, the legal status of targeted killing has become a subject of contention within and between various nations. Historically, at least since the mid-eighteenth century, Western thinking has generally considered the use of assassination as a tool of statecraft to be illegal. Some academics, military personnel and officials describe targeted killing as legitimate within the context of self-defense, when employed against terrorists or combatants engaged in asymmetrical warfare . They argue that unmanned combat aerial vehicles (drones) are more humane and more accurate than manned vehicles. Scholars are also divided as to whether targeted killings are an effective counterterrorism strategy. The strategy has also been used by non-state actors and unrecognised states such as the Islamic State . ^ Greenwald, Glenn (24 October 2012). \"Obama moves to make the War on Terror permanent\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 July 2019 . ^ Pollack, Kenneth M. (7 March 2018). \"Learning From Israel's Political Assassination Program\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 22 July 2019 . ^ Mann, James (14 June 2012). The Obamians: The Struggle Inside the White House to Redefine American Power . Penguin. p. 410. ISBN 9781101583616 . ^ Lynn, John A. (23 July 2019). Another Kind of War: The Nature and History of Terrorism . Yale University Press. p. 410. ISBN 9780300188813 . ^ Cite error: The named reference CSS was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Targeted Killings\" . Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 10 February 2015 . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . ^ Carroll, Rory (2 August 2012). \"The philosopher making the moral case for US drones\" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 18 February 2017 . Retrieved 16 December 2016 . ^ Shane, Scott (14 July 2012). \"The Moral Case for Drones\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 18 February 2017 . Retrieved 13 February 2017 . ^ Jordan, Jenna (2019). Leadership Decapitation: Strategic Targeting of Terrorist Organizations . Stanford University Press. ISBN 9781503608245 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Jordan, Jenna (April 2014). \"Attacking the Leader, Missing the Mark: Why Terrorist Groups Survive Decapitation Strikes\" . International Security . 38 (4): 7– 38. doi : 10.1162/ISEC_a_00157 . ISSN 0162-2889 . S2CID 57569755 . ^ Frankel, M. (2010). \"The ABCs of HVT: Key Lessons from High Value Targeting Campaigns Against Insurgents and Terrorists\" . Studies in Conflict and Terrorism . 34 : 17– 30. doi : 10.1080/1057610x.2011.531456 . S2CID 110265235 . ^ Jordan, Jenna (2 December 2009). \"When Heads Roll: Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Decapitation\". Security Studies . 18 (4): 719– 755. doi : 10.1080/09636410903369068 . ISSN 0963-6412 . S2CID 59496454 . ^ Johnston, Patrick B. (1 April 2012). \"Does Decapitation Work? Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Targeting in Counterinsurgency Campaigns\". International Security . 36 (4): 47– 79. doi : 10.1162/ISEC_a_00076 . ISSN 0162-2889 . S2CID 53519659 . ^ Price, Bryan C. (1 April 2012). \"Targeting Top Terrorists: How Leadership Decapitation Contributes to Counterterrorism\". International Security . 36 (4): 9– 46. doi : 10.1162/ISEC_a_00075 . ISSN 0162-2889 . S2CID 15188795 . ^ Cite error: The named reference techagainstterrorism was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Extrajudicial assassination by governments Modern targeted killings are frequently performed using unmanned combat aerial vehicles like the MQ-9 Reaper . Targeted killing is a form of assassination carried out by governments outside a judicial procedure or a battlefield . Since the late 20th century, the legal status of targeted killing has become a subject of contention within and between various nations. Historically, at least since the mid-eighteenth century, Western thinking has generally considered the use of assassination as a tool of statecraft to be illegal. Some academics, military personnel and officials describe targeted killing as legitimate within the context of self-defense, when employed against terrorists or combatants engaged in asymmetrical warfare . They argue that unmanned combat aerial vehicles (drones) are more humane and more accurate than manned vehicles. Scholars are also divided as to whether targeted killings are an effective counterterrorism strategy. The strategy has also been used by non-state actors and unrecognised states such as the Islamic State . ^ Greenwald, Glenn (24 October 2012). \"Obama moves to make the War on Terror permanent\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 22 July 2019 . ^ Pollack, Kenneth M. (7 March 2018). \"Learning From Israel's Political Assassination Program\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 22 July 2019 . ^ Mann, James (14 June 2012). The Obamians: The Struggle Inside the White House to Redefine American Power . Penguin. p. 410. ISBN 9781101583616 . ^ Lynn, John A. (23 July 2019). Another Kind of War: The Nature and History of Terrorism . Yale University Press. p. 410. ISBN 9780300188813 . ^ Cite error: The named reference CSS was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Targeted Killings\" . Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 10 February 2015 . Retrieved 15 February 2015 . ^ Carroll, Rory (2 August 2012). \"The philosopher making the moral case for US drones\" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 18 February 2017 . Retrieved 16 December 2016 . ^ Shane, Scott (14 July 2012). \"The Moral Case for Drones\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 18 February 2017 . Retrieved 13 February 2017 . ^ Jordan, Jenna (2019). Leadership Decapitation: Strategic Targeting of Terrorist Organizations . Stanford University Press. ISBN 9781503608245 . Retrieved 3 January 2020 . ^ Jordan, Jenna (April 2014). \"Attacking the Leader, Missing the Mark: Why Terrorist Groups Survive Decapitation Strikes\" . International Security . 38 (4): 7– 38. doi : 10.1162/ISEC_a_00157 . ISSN 0162-2889 . S2CID 57569755 . ^ Frankel, M. (2010). \"The ABCs of HVT: Key Lessons from High Value Targeting Campaigns Against Insurgents and Terrorists\" . Studies in Conflict and Terrorism . 34 : 17– 30. doi : 10.1080/1057610x.2011.531456 . S2CID 110265235 . ^ Jordan, Jenna (2 December 2009). \"When Heads Roll: Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Decapitation\". Security Studies . 18 (4): 719– 755. doi : 10.1080/09636410903369068 . ISSN 0963-6412 . S2CID 59496454 . ^ Johnston, Patrick B. (1 April 2012). \"Does Decapitation Work? Assessing the Effectiveness of Leadership Targeting in Counterinsurgency Campaigns\". International Security . 36 (4): 47– 79. doi : 10.1162/ISEC_a_00076 . ISSN 0162-2889 . S2CID 53519659 . ^ Price, Bryan C. (1 April 2012). \"Targeting Top Terrorists: How Leadership Decapitation Contributes to Counterterrorism\". International Security . 36 (4): 9– 46. doi : 10.1162/ISEC_a_00075 . ISSN 0162-2889 . S2CID 15188795 . ^ Cite error: The named reference techagainstterrorism was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Apartheid",
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   "lead_before": "South African system of racial segregation This article is about apartheid in South Africa. For apartheid as defined in international law, see Crime of apartheid . For other uses, see Apartheid (disambiguation) . Apartheid ( / ə ˈ p ɑːr t ( h ) aɪ t / ə- PART -(h)yte , especially South African English : / ə ˈ p ɑːr t ( h ) eɪ t / ə- PART -(h)ayt , Afrikaans : [aˈpart(ɦ)əit] ; transl. \"separateness\" , lit. ' aparthood ' ) was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia ) from 1948 to the early 1990s . It was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on baasskap ( lit. 'boss-ship' or 'boss-hood'), which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and economically by the nation's minority white population . Under this minoritarian system, white citizens held the highest status, followed by Indians , Coloureds and black Africans , in that order. The economic legacy and social effects of apartheid continue to the present day, particularly inequality . Broadly speaking, apartheid was delineated into petty apartheid , which entailed the segregation of public facilities and social events, and grand apartheid , which strictly segregated housing and employment opportunities by race. The first apartheid law was the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949 , followed closely by the Immorality Amendment Act of 1950, which made it illegal for most South African citizens to marry or pursue sexual relationships across racial lines . The Population Registration Act, 1950 classified all South Africans into one of four racial groups based on appearance, known ancestry, socioeconomic status, and cultural lifestyle: \" Black \", \" White \", \" Coloured \", and \" Indian \", the last two of which included several sub-classifications. Places of residence were determined by racial classification. Between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million black Africans were removed from their homes and forced into segregated neighbourhoods as a result of apartheid legislation, in some of the largest mass evictions in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the black population to ten designated \"tribal homelands\", also known as bantustans , four of which became nominally independent states. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans. Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the 20th century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations and brought about extensive international sanctions , including arms embargoes and economic sanctions on South Africa. During the 1970s and 1980s, internal resistance to apartheid became increasingly militant, prompting brutal crackdowns by the National Party ruling government and protracted sectarian violence that left thousands dead or in detention. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that there were 21,000 deaths from political violence, with 7,000 deaths between 1948 and 1989, and 14,000 deaths and 22,000 injuries in the transition period between 1990 and 1994. Some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and Coloured political representation in parliament , but these measures failed to appease most activist groups. Between 1987 and 1993, the National Party entered into bilateral negotiations with the African National Congress (ANC), the leading anti-apartheid political movement, for ending segregation and introducing majority rule. In 1990, prominent ANC figures, such as Nelson Mandela , were released from prison. Apartheid legislation was repealed on 17 June 1991, leading to non-racial elections in April 1994 . Since the end of apartheid, elections have been open and competitive, and the lives of South Africans have improved across multiple metrics. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Repeal of Population Registration Act\" . C-Span. 17 June 1991. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . Retrieved 7 June 2018 . ^ Myre, Greg (18 June 1991). \"South Africa ends racial classifications\" . Cape Girardeau: Southeast Missourian. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020 . Retrieved 1 March 2018 . ^ Bartusis, Mark (2012). Gomez, Edmund; Premdas, Ralph (eds.). Affirmative Action, Ethnicity and Conflict . New York: Routledge Books. pp. 126– 132. ISBN 978-0415627689 . ^ Mayne, Alan (1999). From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-275-96151-0 . ^ Leander (15 June 2015). \"Despite the 1994 political victory against apartheid, its economic legacy persists by Haydn Cornish-Jenkins\" . South African History Online . Archived from the original on 2 May 2018 . Retrieved 2 May 2018 . ^ Moeti, Thato (27 April 2018). \"Apartheid legacy haunts SA economy\" . www.sabcnews.com . SABC News. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018 . Retrieved 2 May 2018 . ^ Hirsch, Alan (6 April 2018). \"Ramaphosa's tough job on fixing Apartheid legacy\" . The Conversation Africa . AllAfrica. ^ Msimang, Sisonke (12 December 2017). \"All Is Not Forgiven: South Africa and the Scars of Apartheid\" . Foreign Affairs . No. January/February 2018. ISSN 0015-7120 . Retrieved 20 November 2023 . ^ Crompton, Samuel Willard (2007). Desmond Tutu: Fighting Apartheid . New York: Chelsea House, Publishers. pp. 34– 35. ISBN 978-0791092217 . ^ Walton, F. Carl; Udayakumar, S.P.; Muck, William; McIlwain, Charlton; Kramer, Eric; Jensen, Robert; Ibrahim, Vivian; Caliendo, Stephen Maynard; Asher, Nhia (2011). The Routledge Companion to Race and Ethnicity . New York: Routledge Books. pp. 103– 105. ISBN 978-0415777070 . ^ Baldwin-Ragaven, Laurel; London, Lesley; du Gruchy, Jeanelle (1999). An ambulance of the wrong colour: health professionals, human rights and ethics in South Africa . Juta and Company Limited. p. 18. ^ \"South Africa – Overcoming Apartheid\" . African Studies Center of Michigan State University. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . ^ Lodge, Tim (2011). Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences . Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 234– 235. ISBN 978-0192801852 . ^ Lodge, Tom (1983). Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945 . New York: Longman. ^ Pandey, Satish Chandra (2006). International Terrorism and the Contemporary World . New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Publishers. pp. 197– 199. ISBN 978-8176256384 . ^ Ugorji, Basil (2012). From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa . Denver: Outskirts Press. pp. 65– 66. ISBN 978-1432788353 . ^ \"SAPA – 27 May 97 – HRC SUBMITS APARTHEID REPRESSION BOOK TO TRUTH BODY\" . ^ Thomas, Scott (1995). The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960 . London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202– 210. ISBN 978-1850439936 . ^ \"De Klerk dismantles apartheid in South Africa\" . BBC News . 2 February 1990. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009 . Retrieved 21 February 2009 . ^ Alex Duval Smith (31 January 2010). \"Why FW de Klerk let Nelson Mandela out of prison\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 17 March 2016 . Retrieved 25 March 2016 . ^ Mitchell, Thomas (2008). Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa . Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 978-0313313578 . ^ Lieberman, Evan (2022). Until We Have Won Our Liberty: South Africa after Apartheid . Princeton University Press. doi : 10.2307/j.ctv244ssrw . ISBN 978-0-691-20300-3 . JSTOR j.ctv244ssrw . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "South African system of racial segregation This article is about apartheid in South Africa. For apartheid as defined in international law, see Crime of apartheid . For other uses, see Apartheid (disambiguation) . Apartheid ( / ə ˈ p ɑːr t ( h ) aɪ t / ə- PART -(h)yte , especially South African English : / ə ˈ p ɑːr t ( h ) eɪ t / ə- PART -(h)ayt , Afrikaans : [aˈpart(ɦ)əit] ; transl. \"separateness\" , lit. ' aparthood ' ) was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia ) from 1948 to the early 1990s . It was characterised by an authoritarian political culture based on baasskap ( lit. 'boss-ship' or 'boss-hood'), which ensured that South Africa was dominated politically, socially, and economically by the nation's minority white population . Under this minoritarian system, white citizens held the highest status, followed by Indians , Coloureds and black Africans , in that order. The economic legacy and social effects of apartheid continue to the present day, particularly inequality . Broadly speaking, apartheid was delineated into petty apartheid , which entailed the segregation of public facilities and social events, and grand apartheid , which strictly segregated housing and employment opportunities by race. The first apartheid law was the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949 , followed closely by the Immorality Amendment Act of 1950, which made it illegal for most South African citizens to marry or pursue sexual relationships across racial lines . The Population Registration Act, 1950 classified all South Africans into one of four racial groups based on appearance, known ancestry, socioeconomic status, and cultural lifestyle: \" Black \", \" White \", \" Coloured \", and \" Indian \", the last two of which included several sub-classifications. Places of residence were determined by racial classification. Between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million black Africans were removed from their homes and forced into segregated neighbourhoods as a result of apartheid legislation, in some of the largest mass evictions in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the black population to ten designated \"tribal homelands\", also known as bantustans , four of which became nominally independent states. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans. Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the 20th century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations and brought about extensive international sanctions , including arms embargoes and economic sanctions on South Africa. During the 1970s and 1980s, internal resistance to apartheid became increasingly militant, prompting brutal crackdowns by the National Party ruling government and protracted sectarian violence that left thousands dead or in detention. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that there were 21,000 deaths from political violence, with 7,000 deaths between 1948 and 1989, and 14,000 deaths and 22,000 injuries in the transition period between 1990 and 1994. Some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and Coloured political representation in parliament , but these measures failed to appease most activist groups. Between 1987 and 1993, the National Party entered into bilateral negotiations with the African National Congress (ANC), the leading anti-apartheid political movement, for ending segregation and introducing majority rule. In 1990, prominent ANC figures, such as Nelson Mandela , were released from prison. Apartheid legislation was repealed on 17 June 1991, leading to non-racial elections in April 1994 . Since the end of apartheid, elections have been open and competitive, and the lives of South Africans have improved across multiple metrics. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Repeal of Population Registration Act\" . C-Span. 17 June 1991. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . Retrieved 7 June 2018 . ^ Myre, Greg (18 June 1991). \"South Africa ends racial classifications\" . Cape Girardeau: Southeast Missourian. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020 . Retrieved 1 March 2018 . ^ Bartusis, Mark (2012). Gomez, Edmund; Premdas, Ralph (eds.). Affirmative Action, Ethnicity and Conflict . New York: Routledge Books. pp. 126– 132. ISBN 978-0415627689 . ^ Mayne, Alan (1999). From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-275-96151-0 . ^ Leander (15 June 2015). \"Despite the 1994 political victory against apartheid, its economic legacy persists by Haydn Cornish-Jenkins\" . South African History Online . Archived from the original on 2 May 2018 . Retrieved 2 May 2018 . ^ Moeti, Thato (27 April 2018). \"Apartheid legacy haunts SA economy\" . www.sabcnews.com . SABC News. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018 . Retrieved 2 May 2018 . ^ Hirsch, Alan (6 April 2018). \"Ramaphosa's tough job on fixing Apartheid legacy\" . The Conversation Africa . AllAfrica. ^ Msimang, Sisonke (12 December 2017). \"All Is Not Forgiven: South Africa and the Scars of Apartheid\" . Foreign Affairs . No. January/February 2018. ISSN 0015-7120 . Retrieved 20 November 2023 . ^ Crompton, Samuel Willard (2007). Desmond Tutu: Fighting Apartheid . New York: Chelsea House, Publishers. pp. 34– 35. ISBN 978-0791092217 . ^ Walton, F. Carl; Udayakumar, S.P.; Muck, William; McIlwain, Charlton; Kramer, Eric; Jensen, Robert; Ibrahim, Vivian; Caliendo, Stephen Maynard; Asher, Nhia (2011). The Routledge Companion to Race and Ethnicity . New York: Routledge Books. pp. 103– 105. ISBN 978-0415777070 . ^ Baldwin-Ragaven, Laurel; London, Lesley; du Gruchy, Jeanelle (1999). An ambulance of the wrong colour: health professionals, human rights and ethics in South Africa . Juta and Company Limited. p. 18. ^ \"South Africa – Overcoming Apartheid\" . African Studies Center of Michigan State University. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013 . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . ^ Lodge, Tim (2011). Sharpeville: An Apartheid Massacre and Its Consequences . Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 234– 235. ISBN 978-0192801852 . ^ Lodge, Tom (1983). Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945 . New York: Longman. ^ Pandey, Satish Chandra (2006). International Terrorism and the Contemporary World . New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Publishers. pp. 197– 199. ISBN 978-8176256384 . ^ Ugorji, Basil (2012). From Cultural Justice to Inter-Ethnic Mediation: A Reflection on the Possibility of Ethno-Religious Mediation in Africa . Denver: Outskirts Press. pp. 65– 66. ISBN 978-1432788353 . ^ \"SAPA – 27 May 97 – HRC SUBMITS APARTHEID REPRESSION BOOK TO TRUTH BODY\" . ^ Thomas, Scott (1995). The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC Since 1960 . London: Tauris Academic Studies. pp. 202– 210. ISBN 978-1850439936 . ^ \"De Klerk dismantles apartheid in South Africa\" . BBC News . 2 February 1990. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009 . Retrieved 21 February 2009 . ^ Alex Duval Smith (31 January 2010). \"Why FW de Klerk let Nelson Mandela out of prison\" . The Guardian . Archived from the original on 17 March 2016 . Retrieved 25 March 2016 . ^ Mitchell, Thomas (2008). Native vs Settler: Ethnic Conflict in Israel/Palestine, Northern Ireland and South Africa . Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 978-0313313578 . ^ Lieberman, Evan (2022). Until We Have Won Our Liberty: South Africa after Apartheid . Princeton University Press. doi : 10.2307/j.ctv244ssrw . ISBN 978-0-691-20300-3 . JSTOR j.ctv244ssrw . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Antisemitism",
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   "lead_before": "Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews Not to be confused with Anti-Judaism or Anti-Zionism . Religious persecution Traditional African religions Serers Atheism Baháʼí Faith Buddhism Christianity Christophobia post–Cold War era Catholicism Catholic Church Mormonism Jehovah's Witness Eastern Orthodox Christianity Oriental Orthodox Christianity Protestantism Falun Gong Hinduism ( Anti-Hindu sentiment ) Islam Sunni Shi'a Ahmadiyya Alevism Sufis Islamophobia Persecution of non-believers Judaism Antisemitism Anti-Judaism Religious antisemitism New religious movements Christian countercult movement Neopaganism Rastafari Zoroastrianism Religion portal v t e Antisemitism , or Jew-hatred , is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews . A person who harbours it is called an antisemite . Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemitic tendencies may be motivated primarily by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism . In the former case, usually known as racial antisemitism , a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society. In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism , a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand that Jews turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions . The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by anti-Judaism , which is distinct from antisemitism itself. There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of Jewish persecution . On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. At the extreme, it consists of pogroms or genocide , which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term antisemitism did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Europe, where modern antisemitism began to emerge from antisemitism in Christian communities during the Middle Ages. Since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in antisemitic incidents across the Arab world , largely due to the advent of Arab antisemitic conspiracy theories , which were influenced by European antisemitic conspiracy theories . Beginning in 1879, the compound word Antisemitismus was first used in print in Germany as a \"scientific-sounding term\" for Judenhass ( lit. ' Jew-hatred ' ), and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone. In the 21st century, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as \" new antisemitism \" has been discussed. According to this view, since Israel is a Jewish state , expressions of anti-Zionist positions could harbour antisemitic sentiments, and criticism of Israel can serve as a vehicle for attacks against Jews in general. ^ Cite error: The named reference IHRA2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Jew-hatred\" . Oxford English Dictionary (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/OED/2854443694 . Retrieved 2 September 2024 . (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ \"anti-Semitism\" . Oxford Dictionaries—English . Archived from the original on 8 August 2018 . Retrieved 27 October 2018 . ^ \"anti-Semitism\" . Merriam-Webster Dictionary . Archived from the original on 31 October 2018 . Retrieved 27 October 2018 . ^ See, for example: \"Anti-Semitism\". Encyclopædia Britannica . 2006. Johnson (1987) , p. 133 Lewis, Bernard (Winter 2006). \"The New Anti-Semitism\" . The American Scholar . Vol. 75, no. 1. pp. 25– 36. Archived from the original on 8 September 2011. ^ \"Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance\" (PDF) . United Nations . 1 March 1999. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2023 . Retrieved 27 August 2023 . ^ Nathan, Julie (9 November 2014). \"2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia\" (PDF) . Executive Council of Australian Jewry . p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015 . Retrieved 27 October 2018 . ^ \"Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945\" . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Archived from the original on 31 March 2020 . Retrieved 20 September 2023 . These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial eugenics , they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in Central Europe not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure Aryan blood by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious Jewish plan for world domination . ^ Novak, David (February 2019). \"Supersessionism hard and soft\" . firstthings.com . Archived from the original on 29 September 2023 . Retrieved 24 September 2023 . ^ Keating, Sandra Toenies (2014). \"Revisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān\" . Nicholas of Cusa and Islam . Brill . pp. 202– 217. doi : 10.1163/9789004274761_014 . ISBN 978-90-04-27476-1 . S2CID 170395646 . Archived from the original on 29 November 2018 . Retrieved 24 September 2023 . ^ \"From Religious Prejudice to Antisemitism\" . Facing History and Ourselves . 1 August 2017. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 20 September 2023 . ^ Zauzmer Weil, Julie (22 August 2019). \"How anti-Semitic beliefs have taken hold among some evangelical Christians\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 19 May 2021 . Retrieved 20 September 2023 . ^ Freidenreich, David M. (18 November 2022). \"How Christians Have Used Anti-Jewish and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric for Their Own Ends\" . University of California Press . Archived from the original on 25 September 2023 . Retrieved 20 September 2023 . ^ Herf, Jeffrey (December 2009). \"Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings\". Central European History . 42 (4). Cambridge University Press : 709– 736. doi : 10.1017/S000893890999104X . ISSN 0008-9389 . JSTOR 40600977 . S2CID 145568807 . ^ Spoerl, Joseph S. (January 2020). \"Parallels between Nazi and Islamist Anti-Semitism\" . Jewish Political Studies Review . 31 (1/2). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs : 210– 244. ISSN 0792-335X . JSTOR 26870795 . Archived from the original on 9 June 2020 . Retrieved 14 October 2020 . ^ Bein (1990) , p. 595. ^ Lipstadt (2019) , pp. 22–25 Chanes (2004) , p. 150 Rattansi (2007) , pp. 4–5 Johnston (1983) , p. 27 Laqueur (2006) , p. 21 ^ Lipstadt (2019) , pp. 22–25. ^ Johnson (1987) , p. 133. ^ Lewis, Bernard . \"Semites and Anti-Semites\" . Archived from the original on 14 May 2011 . Retrieved 27 October 2018 . . Extract from Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East , The Library Press, 1973. Lewis, Bernard (Winter 2006). \"The New Anti-Semitism\" . The American Scholar . Vol. 75, no. 1. pp. 25– 36. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017. ^ \"What's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism?\" . BBC News . 28 April 2016. Archived from the original on 25 December 2024 . Retrieved 20 February 2024 . ^ Malik, Kenan (24 February 2019). \"Antisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct\" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Archived from the original on 25 December 2024 . Retrieved 20 February 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference JP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews Not to be confused with Anti-Judaism or Anti-Zionism . Religious persecution Traditional African religions Serers Atheism Baháʼí Faith Buddhism Christianity Christophobia post–Cold War era Catholicism Catholic Church Mormonism Jehovah's Witness Eastern Orthodox Christianity Oriental Orthodox Christianity Protestantism Falun Gong Hinduism ( Anti-Hindu sentiment ) Islam Sunni Shi'a Ahmadiyya Alevism Sufis Islamophobia Persecution of non-believers Judaism Antisemitism Anti-Judaism Religious antisemitism New religious movements Christian countercult movement Neopaganism Rastafari Zoroastrianism Religion portal v t e Antisemitism , or Jew-hatred , is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews . A person who harbours it is called an antisemite . Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemitic tendencies may be motivated primarily by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism . In the former case, usually known as racial antisemitism , a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society. In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism , a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand that Jews turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions . The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by anti-Judaism , which is distinct from antisemitism itself. There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of Jewish persecution . On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. At the extreme, it consists of pogroms or genocide , which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term antisemitism did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Europe, where modern antisemitism began to emerge from antisemitism in Christian communities during the Middle Ages. Since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in antisemitic incidents across the Arab world , largely due to the advent of Arab antisemitic conspiracy theories , which were influenced by European antisemitic conspiracy theories . Beginning in 1879, the compound word Antisemitismus was first used in print in Germany as a \"scientific-sounding term\" for Judenhass ( lit. ' Jew-hatred ' ), and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone. In the 21st century, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as \" new antisemitism \" has been discussed. According to this view, since Israel is a Jewish state , expressions of anti-Zionist positions could harbour antisemitic sentiments, and criticism of Israel can serve as a vehicle for attacks against Jews in general. ^ Cite error: The named reference IHRA2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Jew-hatred\" . Oxford English Dictionary (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/OED/2854443694 . Retrieved 2 September 2024 . (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ \"anti-Semitism\" . Oxford Dictionaries—English . Archived from the original on 8 August 2018 . Retrieved 27 October 2018 . ^ \"anti-Semitism\" . Merriam-Webster Dictionary . Archived from the original on 31 October 2018 . Retrieved 27 October 2018 . ^ See, for example: \"Anti-Semitism\". Encyclopædia Britannica . 2006. Johnson (1987) , p. 133 Lewis, Bernard (Winter 2006). \"The New Anti-Semitism\" . The American Scholar . Vol. 75, no. 1. pp. 25– 36. Archived from the original on 8 September 2011. ^ \"Measures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance\" (PDF) . United Nations . 1 March 1999. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2023 . Retrieved 27 August 2023 . ^ Nathan, Julie (9 November 2014). \"2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia\" (PDF) . Executive Council of Australian Jewry . p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015 . Retrieved 27 October 2018 . ^ \"Antisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945\" . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Archived from the original on 31 March 2020 . Retrieved 20 September 2023 . These new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial eugenics , they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in Central Europe not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure Aryan blood by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious Jewish plan for world domination . ^ Novak, David (February 2019). \"Supersessionism hard and soft\" . firstthings.com . Archived from the original on 29 September 2023 . Retrieved 24 September 2023 . ^ Keating, Sandra Toenies (2014). \"Revisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān\" . Nicholas of Cusa and Islam . Brill . pp. 202– 217. doi : 10.1163/9789004274761_014 . ISBN 978-90-04-27476-1 . S2CID 170395646 . Archived from the original on 29 November 2018 . Retrieved 24 September 2023 . ^ \"From Religious Prejudice to Antisemitism\" . Facing History and Ourselves . 1 August 2017. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 20 September 2023 . ^ Zauzmer Weil, Julie (22 August 2019). \"How anti-Semitic beliefs have taken hold among some evangelical Christians\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 19 May 2021 . Retrieved 20 September 2023 . ^ Freidenreich, David M. (18 November 2022). \"How Christians Have Used Anti-Jewish and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric for Their Own Ends\" . University of California Press . Archived from the original on 25 September 2023 . Retrieved 20 September 2023 . ^ Herf, Jeffrey (December 2009). \"Nazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings\". Central European History . 42 (4). Cambridge University Press : 709– 736. doi : 10.1017/S000893890999104X . ISSN 0008-9389 . JSTOR 40600977 . S2CID 145568807 . ^ Spoerl, Joseph S. (January 2020). \"Parallels between Nazi and Islamist Anti-Semitism\" . Jewish Political Studies Review . 31 (1/2). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs : 210– 244. ISSN 0792-335X . JSTOR 26870795 . Archived from the original on 9 June 2020 . Retrieved 14 October 2020 . ^ Bein (1990) , p. 595. ^ Lipstadt (2019) , pp. 22–25 Chanes (2004) , p. 150 Rattansi (2007) , pp. 4–5 Johnston (1983) , p. 27 Laqueur (2006) , p. 21 ^ Lipstadt (2019) , pp. 22–25. ^ Johnson (1987) , p. 133. ^ Lewis, Bernard . \"Semites and Anti-Semites\" . Archived from the original on 14 May 2011 . Retrieved 27 October 2018 . . Extract from Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East , The Library Press, 1973. Lewis, Bernard (Winter 2006). \"The New Anti-Semitism\" . The American Scholar . Vol. 75, no. 1. pp. 25– 36. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017. ^ \"What's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism?\" . BBC News . 28 April 2016. Archived from the original on 25 December 2024 . Retrieved 20 February 2024 . ^ Malik, Kenan (24 February 2019). \"Antisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct\" . The Observer . ISSN 0029-7712 . Archived from the original on 25 December 2024 . Retrieved 20 February 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference JP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Students for Justice in Palestine",
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   "lead_before": "Pro-Palestinian student activist organization Students for Justice in Palestine ( SJP ; Arabic : طلاب من أجل العدالة في فلسطين , romanized : Ṭullāb min ajl al-ʿAdāla fī Filasṭīn ) is a pro-Palestinian college student activism organization in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand. Founded at the University of California, Berkeley in 1993, it has campaigned for the Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions movement. The SJP praised Hamas 's October 7 attacks on Israel as a \"historic win for the Palestinian resistance\". The group has faced accusations of antisemitism and some of its campus chapters have been suspended. ^ Cite error: The named reference y329 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Pro-Palestinian student activist organization Students for Justice in Palestine ( SJP ; Arabic : طلاب من أجل العدالة في فلسطين , romanized : Ṭullāb min ajl al-ʿAdāla fī Filasṭīn ) is a pro-Palestinian college student activism organization in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand. Founded at the University of California, Berkeley in 1993, it has campaigned for the Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions movement. The SJP praised Hamas 's October 7 attacks on Israel as a \"historic win for the Palestinian resistance\". The group has faced accusations of antisemitism and some of its campus chapters have been suspended. ^ Cite error: The named reference y329 was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Nation of Islam",
   "pageid": 21709,
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   "lead_before": "African American new religious organization This article is about the American religious organization. For the pan-Islamic concept of the Muslim nation, see Ummah . For the form of government based on sharia, see Islamic state . The Nation of Islam ( NOI ) is a religious organization founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930. A centralized and hierarchical group committed to black nationalism , it focuses attention on the black African diaspora , especially on African Americans . While describing itself as Islamic and using Islamic terminology, its religious tenets differ substantially from orthodox Islamic traditions . Scholars of religion characterize it as a new religious movement . As of 2007 it was estimated to have 50,000 members. Based in the United States, the Nation has also established a presence elsewhere, with membership open only to people of color . The Nation teaches that there has been a succession of mortal gods , each a black man named Allah , of whom Fard Muhammad was the latest. It claims that the first Allah created the earliest humans, the dark-skinned Original Asiatic Race, whose members possessed inner divinity and from whom all people of color descend. It maintains that a scientist named Yakub then created the white race, a group that lacked inner divinity and whose intrinsic violence led them to overthrow the Original Asiatic Race and achieve global dominance. Setting itself against the white-dominated society of the United States , the NOI campaigns for the creation of an independent African American nation-state and calls for African Americans to be economically self-sufficient and separatist . A millenarian tradition, it maintains that Fard Muhammad will soon return aboard a spaceship to wipe out the white-dominated order and establish a utopia . Members worship in buildings, varyingly called temples or mosques . Practitioners are expected to live disciplined lives, adhering to strict dress codes, specific dietary requirements, and patriarchal gender roles. Wallace Fard Muhammad established the Nation of Islam in Detroit . He drew on various sources, especially Noble Drew Ali 's Moorish Science Temple of America and black nationalist trends like Garveyism . After Fard Muhammad disappeared in 1934, the leadership of the NOI was assumed by Elijah Muhammad , who expanded the NOI's teachings, declared Fard Muhammad to have been the latest Allah, and built the group's business empire. Attracting growing attention in the late 1950s and 1960s, the NOI's influence expanded through high-profile members such as the black nationalist activist Malcolm X and the boxer Muhammad Ali . Deeming it a threat to domestic security, the Federal Bureau of Investigation worked to undermine the group. Following Elijah Muhammad's death in 1975, his son Wallace D. Muhammad took over the organization, moving it towards Sunni Islam and renaming it the World Community of Al-Islam in the West. Members seeking to retain Elijah Muhammad's teachings re-established the Nation of Islam under Louis Farrakhan 's leadership in 1977. Farrakhan expanded the NOI's economic and agricultural operations and continued to develop its beliefs, for instance by drawing connections with Dianetics . The Nation has also influenced the formation of other groups like the Five-Percent Nation , United Nation of Islam , and Nuwaubian Nation . Muslim critics accuse the NOI of promoting teachings that are not authentically Islamic. Other critics, like the Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-Defamation League , have characterized it as a hate group that promotes racism against white people , antisemitism , and anti-LGBT rhetoric . ^ Duranton 2024 , p. 595. ^ MacFarquhar 2007 .",
   "lead_after": "African American new religious organization This article is about the American religious organization. For the pan-Islamic concept of the Muslim nation, see Ummah . For the form of government based on sharia, see Islamic state . The Nation of Islam ( NOI ) is a religious organization founded in the United States by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930. A centralized and hierarchical group committed to black nationalism , it focuses attention on the black African diaspora , especially on African Americans . While describing itself as Islamic and using Islamic terminology, its religious tenets differ substantially from orthodox Islamic traditions . Scholars of religion characterize it as a new religious movement . The Nation teaches that there has been a succession of mortal gods , each a black man named Allah , of whom Fard Muhammad was the latest. It claims that the first Allah created the earliest humans, the dark-skinned Original Asiatic Race, whose members possessed inner divinity and from whom all people of color descend. It maintains that a scientist named Yakub then created the white race, a group that lacked inner divinity and whose intrinsic violence led them to overthrow the Original Asiatic Race and achieve global dominance. Setting itself against the white-dominated society of the United States , the NOI campaigns for the creation of an independent African American nation-state and calls for African Americans to be economically self-sufficient and separatist . A millenarian tradition, it maintains that Fard Muhammad will soon return aboard a spaceship to wipe out the white-dominated order and establish a utopia . Members worship in buildings, varyingly called temples or mosques . Practitioners are expected to live disciplined lives, adhering to strict dress codes, specific dietary requirements, and patriarchal gender roles. Wallace Fard Muhammad established the Nation of Islam in Detroit . He drew on various sources, especially Noble Drew Ali 's Moorish Science Temple of America and black nationalist trends like Garveyism . After Fard Muhammad disappeared in 1934, the leadership of the NOI was assumed by Elijah Muhammad , who expanded the NOI's teachings, declared Fard Muhammad to have been the latest Allah, and built the group's business empire. Attracting growing attention in the late 1950s and 1960s, the NOI's influence expanded through high-profile members such as the black nationalist activist Malcolm X and the boxer Muhammad Ali . Deeming it a threat to domestic security, the Federal Bureau of Investigation worked to undermine the group. Following Elijah Muhammad's death in 1975, his son Wallace D. Muhammad took over the organization, moving it towards Sunni Islam and renaming it the World Community of Al-Islam in the West. Members seeking to retain Elijah Muhammad's teachings re-established the Nation of Islam under Louis Farrakhan 's leadership in 1977. Farrakhan expanded the NOI's economic and agricultural operations and continued to develop its beliefs, for instance by drawing connections with Dianetics . Based in the United States, the Nation of Islam has also established a presence elsewhere, with membership open only to people of color . In 2007 it was estimated to have 50,000 members. The Nation has also influenced the formation of other groups like the Five-Percent Nation , United Nation of Islam , and Nuwaubian Nation . Muslim critics accuse the NOI of promoting teachings that are not authentically Islamic. Other critics, like the Southern Poverty Law Center and the Anti-Defamation League , have characterized it as a hate group that promotes racism against white people , antisemitism , and anti-LGBT rhetoric . ^ Duranton 2024 , p. 595. ^ MacFarquhar 2007 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Aliyah",
   "pageid": 351513,
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aliyah&oldid=1361630824",
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   "lead_before": "Immigration of diaspora Jews to the Land of Israel Not to be confused with the singer Aaliyah . For other uses, see Aliyah (disambiguation) . 100 years of Aliyah (immigration) to Mandatory Palestine and Israel , between 1919 and 2020 Aliyah ( US : / ˌ æ l i ˈ ɑː / , UK : / ˌ ɑː -/ ; Hebrew : עֲלִיָּה , romanized : ălīyyā , lit. ' ascent ' ) is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to, historically, the geographical Land of Israel or the Palestine region , where (in the 20th century) the State of Israel was established. Traditionally described as \"the act of going up\" (namely, toward the Jewish holy city of Jerusalem ), moving to the Land of Israel or \"making aliyah \" is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism . The opposite action—emigration by Jews from the Land of Israel—is referred to in the Hebrew language as yerida ( lit. ' descent ' ). The Law of Return that was passed by the Israeli parliament in 1950 gives all diaspora Jews, as well as their children and grandchildren, the right to relocate to Israel and acquire Israeli citizenship on the basis of connecting to their Jewish identity . For much of their history , most Jews have lived in diasporas outside of the Land of Israel. Dispersion has resulted both from voluntary emigration (e.g. to seek employment or improved conditions of life) and from various historical conflicts that have been associated with Jewish persecution , expulsions and exoduses . In the late 19th century, 99.7% of the world's Jews lived outside the region, with Jews representing 2–5% of the population of the Palestine region . Despite its historical value as a national aspiration for the Jewish people , aliyah was rarely undertaken prior to the \"national awakening\" and the development of the Zionist movement in the late 19th century. Larger-scale immigration of Jews to Palestine had consequently begun by 1882. Since the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948, more than 3 million Jews have made aliyah . As of 2014 , Israel and the Israeli-occupied territories contain approximately 42.9 percent of the world's Jewish population . Since 2024, the State of Israel has seen net negative migration: yerida is higher than aliyah . ^ \" 'Aliyah': The Word and Its Meaning\" . 2005-05-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-19 . Retrieved 2013-04-29 . ^ Cite error: The named reference On-1969 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Mendel2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Rosenzweig, Rafael N. (1989). The Economic Consequences of Zionism . E. J. Brill. p. 1. ISBN 978-90-04-09147-4 . Zionism, the urge of the Jewish people to return to Palestine, is almost as ancient as the Jewish diaspora itself. Some Talmudic statements ... Almost a millennium later, the poet and philosopher Yehuda Halevi ... In the 19th century ... ^ Schneider, Jan (June 2008). \"Israel\" . Focus Migration . 13. Hamburg Institute of International Economics. ISSN 1864-6220 . Archived from the original on 2019-05-14 . Retrieved 2013-04-29 . ^ Branovsky, Yael (6 May 2008). \"400 olim arrive in Israel ahead of Independence Day\" . Ynetnews . Archived from the original on 2017-06-30 . Retrieved 2013-04-29 . ^ DellaPergola, Sergio (2014). Dashefsky, Arnold ; Sheskin, Ira (eds.). \"World Jewish Population, 2014\" . Current Jewish Population Reports . 11 . The American Jewish Year Book (Dordrecht: Springer): 5– 9, 16– 17. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2016 . Israel's Jewish population (not including about 348,000 persons not recorded as Jews in the Population Register and belonging to families initially admitted to the country within the framework of the Law of Return) surpassed six million in 2014 (42.9% of world Jewry). ^ \"Israel 2025: A Demographic Crossroads\" . TaubCenter.org.il . Taub Center for Social Policy Studies in Israel. 28 December 2025 . Retrieved 26 February 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Immigration of diaspora Jews to the Land of Israel Not to be confused with the singer Aaliyah . For other uses, see Aliyah (disambiguation) . 100 years of Aliyah (immigration) to Mandatory Palestine and Israel , between 1919 and 2020 Aliyah ( US : / ˌ æ l i ˈ ɑː / , UK : / ˌ ɑː -/ ; Hebrew : עֲלִיָּה , romanized : ălīyyā , lit. ' ascent ' ) is the immigration of Jews from the diaspora to, historically, the geographical Land of Israel or the Palestine region , where (in the 20th century) the State of Israel was established. Traditionally described as \"the act of going up\" (namely, toward the Jewish holy city of Jerusalem ), moving to the Land of Israel or \"making aliyah \" is one of the most basic tenets of Zionism . The opposite action—emigration by Jews from the Land of Israel—is referred to in the Hebrew language as yerida ( lit. ' descent ' ). The Law of Return that was passed by the Israeli parliament in 1950 gives all diaspora Jews, as well as their children and grandchildren, the right to relocate to Israel and acquire Israeli citizenship on the basis of connecting to their Jewish identity . For much of their history , most Jews have lived in diasporas outside of the Land of Israel. Dispersion has resulted both from voluntary emigration (e.g. to seek employment or improved conditions of life) and from various historical conflicts that have been associated with Jewish persecution , expulsions and exoduses . In the late 19th century, 99.7% of the world's Jews lived outside the region, with Jews representing 2–5% of the population of the Palestine region . Despite its historical value as a national aspiration for the Jewish people , aliyah was rarely undertaken prior to the \"national awakening\" and the development of the Zionist movement in the late 19th century. Larger-scale immigration of Jews to Palestine had consequently begun by 1882. Institutionalized antisemitism and the rise of the Nazi rule in parts of Europe, contributed to significant Jewish immigration waves from Europe during the 1930s and 1940s. Mandatory Palestine became a major destination for Jewish immigrants where Palestine absorbed 247,000 newcomers between 1932 and 1939, representing approximately 46% of Jewish emigration from Europe during that period. The 1939 White Paper set a restriction on Jewish immigration to 75,000 over the following five years, with Arab consent for further immigration afterwards. These restrictions contributed to increased illegal immigration ( Aliyah Bet ) during the British Mandate period. The largest surge in modern Jewish migration to the region occurred between 1948 and 1951, when more than 680,000 immigrants arrived. This period following the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948, saw the Jewish population more than double within a few years. Since 1950, millions of Jews have immigrated to Israel under the Law of Return. As of 2014 , Israel and the Israeli-occupied territories contain approximately 42.9 percent of the world's Jewish population . Since 2024, the State of Israel has seen net negative migration: yerida is higher than aliyah . ^ \" 'Aliyah': The Word and Its Meaning\" . 2005-05-15. Archived from the original on 2009-12-19 . Retrieved 2013-04-29 . ^ Cite error: The named reference On-1969 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Mendel2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Rosenzweig, Rafael N. (1989). The Economic Consequences of Zionism . E. J. Brill. p. 1. ISBN 978-90-04-09147-4 . Zionism, the urge of the Jewish people to return to Palestine, is almost as ancient as the Jewish diaspora itself. Some Talmudic statements ... Almost a millennium later, the poet and philosopher Yehuda Halevi ... In the 19th century ... ^ Schneider, Jan (June 2008). \"Israel\" . Focus Migration . 13. Hamburg Institute of International Economics. ISSN 1864-6220 . Archived from the original on 2019-05-14 . Retrieved 2013-04-29 . ^ \"Jewish Immigration to Historical Palestine\" . CJPME - English . Retrieved 2026-07-05 . ^ \"The Avalon Project : British White Paper of 1939\" . avalon.law.yale.edu . Retrieved 2026-07-05 . ^ Kaplan, Jonathan. \"The Mass Migration to Israel of the 1950s\" . My Jewish Learning . Retrieved 2026-07-05 . ^ \"FIGURE 1. JEWISH IMMIGRANTS TO ISRAEL, 1919-2000 - ABSOLUTE NUMBERS AND...\" ResearchGate . Retrieved 2026-07-05 . ^ Branovsky, Yael (6 May 2008). \"400 olim arrive in Israel ahead of Independence Day\" . Ynetnews . Archived from the original on 2017-06-30 . Retrieved 2013-04-29 . ^ DellaPergola, Sergio (2014). Dashefsky, Arnold ; Sheskin, Ira (eds.). \"World Jewish Population, 2014\" . Current Jewish Population Reports . 11 . The American Jewish Year Book (Dordrecht: Springer): 5– 9, 16– 17. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018 . Retrieved January 3, 2016 . Israel's Jewish population (not including about 348,000 persons not recorded as Jews in the Population Register and belonging to families initially admitted to the country within the framework of the Law of Return) surpassed six million in 2014 (42.9% of world Jewry). ^ \"Israel 2025: A Demographic Crossroads\" . TaubCenter.org.il . Taub Center for Social Policy Studies in Israel. 28 December 2025 . Retrieved 26 February 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "2006 Lebanon War",
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   "lead_before": "Armed conflict primarily between Israel and Hezbollah For other wars in Lebanon, see Lebanon War . Belligerents Israel Hezbollah Amal Movement Lebanese Communist Party Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon Commanders and leaders Ehud Olmert Amir Peretz Dan Halutz Moshe Kaplinsky Udi Adam Eliezer Shkedi David Ben-Besht Hassan Nasrallah Imad Mughniyeh Nabih Berri Khaled Hadadi Ahmed Jibril Ali Qanso Strength Up to 10,000 soldiers by 2 August; 30,000 soldiers in the last few days Up to 1,000 (south of the Litani River ) Casualties and losses Israel 121 Israel Defense Forces personnel killed 1,244 Israel Defense Forces personnel wounded 20 tanks destroyed 1 helicopter shot down, 3 lost in accidents 1 corvette damaged 44 Israeli civilians killed 1,384 Israeli civilians wounded 2 foreign civilians killed In Lebanon Lebanese citizens* and foreign citizens Dead: 1,191 (per Amnesty International and Lebanese government ) 1,109 (per Human Rights Watch ) Wounded: 4,409 Hezbollah fighters: 250 killed (per Human Rights Watch and Hezbollah) 600+ killed and 800 wounded (per Israel ) Captured: 4 fighters Amal militia: 17 dead LCP militia: 12 dead PFLP-GC militia: 2 dead Lebanese Armed Forces and Internal Security Forces : 43 dead Foreign civilians: 51 dead 25 wounded United Nations: 5 dead 12 wounded * The Lebanese government did not differentiate between civilians and combatants in death toll figures. For total casualty figures, see: Casualties of the 2006 Lebanon War The 2006 Lebanon War was a 34-day armed conflict in Lebanon, fought between Hezbollah and Israel. The war started on 12 July 2006, and continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect in the morning on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon. It marked the third Israeli invasion into Lebanon since 1978. After Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah aimed for the release of Lebanese citizens held in Israeli prisons. On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah ambushed Israeli soldiers on the border, killing three and capturing two; a further five were killed during a failed Israeli rescue attempt. Hezbollah demanded an exchange of prisoners with Israel. Israel launched airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, attacking both Hezbollah military targets and Lebanese civilian infrastructure, including Beirut's Rafic Hariri International Airport . Israel launched a ground invasion of Southern Lebanon and imposed an air-and-naval blockade on the country. Hezbollah then launched more rockets into northern Israel and engaged the IDF in guerrilla warfare from hardened positions. According to Israeli sources, Hezbollah fired close to 4,000 rockets and missiles at Israel from their arsenal of around 15,000 held before the war. On 11 August 2006, the United Nations Security Council unanimously approved United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 (UNSCR 1701) in an effort to end the hostilities, which called for disarmament of Hezbollah , Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, and for the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces and an enlarged United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) in the south. The Lebanese Army began deploying in Southern Lebanon on 17 August and the blockade was lifted on 8 September. On 1 October, most Israeli troops withdrew from Lebanon, although the last of the troops continued to occupy the border-straddling village of Ghajar . Both Hezbollah and the Israeli government claimed victory, while the Winograd Commission deemed the war a missed opportunity for Israel as it did not lead to disarmament of Hezbollah. The conflict is believed to have killed between 1,191 and 1,300 Lebanese people, and 165 Israelis. It severely damaged Lebanese civil infrastructure, and displaced approximately one million Lebanese and 300,000–500,000 Israelis. The remains of the two captured soldiers, whose fates were unknown, were returned to Israel on 16 July 2008 as part of a prisoner exchange . ^ Cite error: The named reference DailyStarTimeline was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Herbert Docena (17 August 2006). \"Amid the bombs, unity is forged\" . Asia Times . Archived from the original on 31 August 2006 . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . The LCP ... has itself been very close to Hezbollah and fought alongside it in the frontlines in the south. According to Hadadeh, at least 12 LCP members and supporters died in the fighting. ^ \"PFLP claims losses in IDF strike on Lebanon base\" . The Jerusalem Post . Associated Press. 6 August 2006. Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. ^ Uzi Rubin. The Rocket Campaign against Israel during the 2006 Lebanon War . p. 12. The Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies Bar-Ilan University ^ \"Israel captures guerillas in Hezbollah hospital raid\" , USA Today , Beirut: reprinted from the Associated Press, 2 August 2006 , retrieved 12 September 2015 ^ \"Some 30,000 Israeli troops in Lebanon – army radio\" . Yahoo! News . Reuters. 13 August 2006. Archived from the original on 15 February 2008. ^ Blanford, Nicholas (11 August 2006). \"Hizbullah's resilience built on years of homework\" . The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved 23 January 2012 . ^ Harel and Issacharoff , p. 172 ^ \" The Final Winograd Commission report , pp. 598–610\" (PDF) (in Hebrew). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2013 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . 628 wounded according to Northern Command medical census of 9 November 2006 (The Final Winograd Commission Report, page 353) ^ Cite error: The named reference books.google.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Rolling Thunder: A Century of tank Warfare (Pen and Sword, 14 November 2013), by Philip Kaplan, page 172 ^ Cordesman & Sullivan 2007 , p. 110\"Only 5–6 of all types represented a lasting vehicle kill\" ^ \"Hezbollah Defies Israeli Pressure\" . BBC News . 21 July 2006. ^ Egozi, Arie (1 August 2006). \"Israeli Air Power Falls Short As Offensive in Southern Lebanon Fails To Halt Hezbollah Rocket Attacks\" . Flight International . Archived from the original on 4 December 2008. ^ Hizbullah shoots down helicopter in southern Lebanon Hanan Greenberg Published: 08.12.06, 23:01, ynetnews ^ Crash grounds Israel helicopters Page last updated at 09:04 GMT, Thursday, 11 September 2008 ^ Exclusive: Photos of navy ship hit during war revealed . YnetNews. 10.11.07 ^ \"Striking Deep Into Israel, Hamas Employs an Upgraded Arsenal\" by Mark Mazzetti, The New York Times , 31 December 2008. ^ \"State snubbed war victim, family says\" . ynetnews.com. 30 August 2007. Archived from the original on 2 June 2008 . Retrieved 13 July 2008 . ^ BBC News Online (8 March 2007). \"PM 'says Israel pre-planned war'\" . Retrieved 9 March 2007. ^ \" The Final Winograd Commission report , pp. 598–610\" (PDF) (in Hebrew). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2013 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . ^ See Casualties of the 2006 Lebanon War#Foreign civilian casualties in Israel and Casualties of the 2006 Lebanon War#Foreign civilian casualties in Lebanon for a complete and adequately sourced list ^ \"Lebanon – Amnesty International Report 2007\" . Human Rights in Lebanese Republic . Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. ^ Israel/Lebanon: Out of all proportion – civilians bear the brunt of the war , Amnesty International, November 2006. ^ \"Implementation of General Assembly Resolution 60/251 of March 2006 entitled \"Human Rights Council\" \" (PDF) . United Nations Human Rights Council. 23 November 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2013. ^ McRae, D.M.; De Mestral, A.L.C. (2010). The Canadian Yearbook of International Law . UBC Press. ISBN 9780774859172 . ^ SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament, And International Security , Oxford University Press, page 69. ^ Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law:Volume 9; Volume 2006 . T.M.C Asser Press. 2006. ISBN 978-90-6704-269-7 . ^ Why They Died: Civilian Casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 War , Human Rights Watch, September 2007 ^ Gross, Michael; Gross, Michael L. (2010). Moral Dilemmas of Modern War: Torture, Assassination, and Blackmail in an Age of Asymmetric Conflict . Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-521-86615-6 . ^ Cite error: The named reference JP250 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL)\" . United Nations. 6 August 2009. Archived from the original on 10 December 2010 . Retrieved 16 January 2011 . ^ Wahab, Hadi (2022). Hezbollah:A Regional Armed Non-State Actor . Taylor & Francis . p. 69. ^ \"Clashes spread to Lebanon as Hezbollah raids Israel\" . International Herald Tribune . 12 July 2006. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009. ^ Myre, Greg; Erlanger, Steven (13 July 2006). \"Israelis Enter Lebanon After Attacks\" . The New York Times . ^ \"Israeli warplanes hit Beirut suburb\" . CNN. 14 July 2006 . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . ^ Cody, Edward (24 August 2006). \"Lebanese Premier Seeks U.S. Help in Lifting Blockade\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . ^ Urquhart, Conal (11 August 2006). \"Computerised weaponry and high morale\" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 30 August 2006 . Retrieved 8 October 2006 . ^ Shaikh, Shaan; Williams, Ian (26 June 2018). \"Missiles and Rockets of Hezbollah\" . Missile Threat . Missile Defense Project at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) . Retrieved 24 June 2025 . ^ Pannell, Ian (9 September 2006). \"Lebanon breathes after the blockade\" . BBC News . Retrieved 13 July 2008 . ^ \"UN peacekeepers: Israeli troops still in Lebanon\" . CNN . Retrieved 20 September 2014 . ^ Hassan Nasrallah (22 September 2006). \"Sayyed Nasrallah Speech on the Divine Victory Rally in Beirut on 22-09-2006\" . al-Ahed magazine . Retrieved 10 August 2020 . ^ \"English Summary of the Winograd Commission Report\" . The New York Times . 30 January 2008 . Retrieved 10 August 2020 . ^ \"Cloud of Syria's war hangs over Lebanese cleric's death\" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 2 April 2019 . Retrieved 20 September 2014 . ^ Reuters, 12 September 2006; Al-Hayat (London), 13 September 2006 ^ \"Country Report—Lebanon,\" The Economist Intelligence Unit, no. 4 (2006), pp. 3–6. ^ \"Lebanon Death Toll Hits 1,300\", by Robert Fisk , 17 August 2006, The Independent ^ Israel Vs. Iran: The Shadow War , by Yaakov Katz, (NY 2012), page 17 ^ \"Lebanon Under Siege\" . Lebanon Higher Relief Council. 2007. Archived from the original on 27 December 2007. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (12 July 2006). \"Hizbullah attacks northern Israel and Israel's response\" ; retrieved 5 March 2007. ^ \"Middle East crisis: Facts and Figures\" . BBC News . 31 August 2006. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008 . Retrieved 13 July 2008 . ^ \"Israel says it will relinquish positions to Lebanese army\" . USA Today . 15 August 2006 . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Armed conflict primarily between Israel and Hezbollah For other wars in Lebanon, see Lebanon War . Belligerents Israel Hezbollah Amal Movement Lebanese Communist Party Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon Commanders and leaders Ehud Olmert Amir Peretz Dan Halutz Moshe Kaplinsky Udi Adam Eliezer Shkedi David Ben-Besht Hassan Nasrallah Imad Mughniyeh Nabih Berri Khaled Hadadi Ahmed Jibril Ali Qanso Strength Up to 10,000 soldiers by 2 August; 30,000 soldiers in the last few days Up to 1,000 (south of the Litani River ) Casualties and losses Israel 121 Israel Defense Forces personnel killed 1,244 Israel Defense Forces personnel wounded 20 tanks destroyed 1 helicopter shot down, 3 lost in accidents 1 corvette damaged 44 Israeli civilians killed 1,384 Israeli civilians wounded 2 foreign civilians killed In Lebanon Lebanese citizens* and foreign citizens Dead: 1,191 (per Amnesty International and Lebanese government ) 1,109 (per Human Rights Watch ) Wounded: 4,409 Hezbollah fighters: 250 killed (per Human Rights Watch and Hezbollah) 600+ killed and 800 wounded (per Israel ) Captured: 4 fighters Amal militia: 17 dead LCP militia: 12 dead PFLP-GC militia: 2 dead Lebanese Armed Forces and Internal Security Forces : 43 dead Foreign civilians: 51 dead 25 wounded United Nations: 5 dead 12 wounded Lebanon tried to remain neutral but still suffered casualties from Israeli artillery and airstrikes during the conflict. The 2006 Lebanon War was a 34-day armed conflict in Lebanon, fought between Hezbollah and Israel. The war started on 12 July 2006 and continued until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect in the morning on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval blockade of Lebanon. It marked the third Israeli invasion into Lebanon since 1978. After Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah aimed for the release of Lebanese citizens held in Israeli prisons. On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah ambushed Israeli soldiers on the border, killing three and capturing two; a further five were killed during a failed Israeli rescue attempt. Hezbollah demanded an exchange of prisoners with Israel. Israel launched airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, attacking both Hezbollah military targets and Lebanese civilian infrastructure, including Beirut's Rafic Hariri International Airport . Israel launched a ground invasion of Southern Lebanon and imposed an air-and-naval blockade on the country. Hezbollah then launched more rockets into northern Israel and engaged the IDF in guerrilla warfare from hardened positions. According to Israeli sources, Hezbollah fired close to 4,000 rockets and missiles at Israel from their arsenal of around 15,000 held before the war. On 11 August 2006, the United Nations Security Council unanimously approved United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 (UNSCR 1701) in an effort to end the hostilities, which called for disarmament of Hezbollah , Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, and for the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces and an enlarged United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) in the south. The Lebanese Army began deploying in Southern Lebanon on 17 August and the blockade was lifted on 8 September. On 1 October, most Israeli troops withdrew from Lebanon, although the last of the troops continued to occupy the border-straddling village of Ghajar . Both Hezbollah and the Israeli government claimed victory, while the Winograd Commission deemed the war a missed opportunity for Israel as it did not lead to disarmament of Hezbollah. The conflict is believed to have killed between 1,191 and 1,300 Lebanese people, and 165 Israelis. It severely damaged Lebanese civil infrastructure, and displaced approximately one million Lebanese and 300,000–500,000 Israelis. The remains of the two captured soldiers, whose fates were unknown, were returned to Israel on 16 July 2008 as part of a prisoner exchange . ^ Cite error: The named reference DailyStarTimeline was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Herbert Docena (17 August 2006). \"Amid the bombs, unity is forged\" . Asia Times . Archived from the original on 31 August 2006 . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . The LCP ... has itself been very close to Hezbollah and fought alongside it in the frontlines in the south. According to Hadadeh, at least 12 LCP members and supporters died in the fighting. ^ \"PFLP claims losses in IDF strike on Lebanon base\" . The Jerusalem Post . Associated Press. 6 August 2006. Archived from the original on 3 February 2012. ^ Uzi Rubin. The Rocket Campaign against Israel during the 2006 Lebanon War . p. 12. The Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies Bar-Ilan University ^ \"Israel captures guerillas in Hezbollah hospital raid\" , USA Today , Beirut: reprinted from the Associated Press, 2 August 2006 , retrieved 12 September 2015 ^ \"Some 30,000 Israeli troops in Lebanon – army radio\" . Yahoo! News . Reuters. 13 August 2006. Archived from the original on 15 February 2008. ^ Blanford, Nicholas (11 August 2006). \"Hizbullah's resilience built on years of homework\" . The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved 23 January 2012 . ^ Harel and Issacharoff , p. 172 ^ \" The Final Winograd Commission report , pp. 598–610\" (PDF) (in Hebrew). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2013 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . 628 wounded according to Northern Command medical census of 9 November 2006 (The Final Winograd Commission Report, page 353) ^ Cite error: The named reference books.google.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Rolling Thunder: A Century of tank Warfare (Pen and Sword, 14 November 2013), by Philip Kaplan, page 172 ^ Cordesman & Sullivan 2007 , p. 110\"Only 5–6 of all types represented a lasting vehicle kill\" ^ \"Hezbollah Defies Israeli Pressure\" . BBC News . 21 July 2006. ^ Egozi, Arie (1 August 2006). \"Israeli Air Power Falls Short As Offensive in Southern Lebanon Fails To Halt Hezbollah Rocket Attacks\" . Flight International . Archived from the original on 4 December 2008. ^ Hizbullah shoots down helicopter in southern Lebanon Hanan Greenberg Published: 08.12.06, 23:01, ynetnews ^ Crash grounds Israel helicopters Page last updated at 09:04 GMT, Thursday, 11 September 2008 ^ Exclusive: Photos of navy ship hit during war revealed . YnetNews. 10.11.07 ^ \"Striking Deep Into Israel, Hamas Employs an Upgraded Arsenal\" by Mark Mazzetti, The New York Times , 31 December 2008. ^ \"State snubbed war victim, family says\" . ynetnews.com. 30 August 2007. Archived from the original on 2 June 2008 . Retrieved 13 July 2008 . ^ BBC News Online (8 March 2007). \"PM 'says Israel pre-planned war'\" . Retrieved 9 March 2007. ^ \" The Final Winograd Commission report , pp. 598–610\" (PDF) (in Hebrew). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2013 . Retrieved 23 September 2013 . ^ See Casualties of the 2006 Lebanon War#Foreign civilian casualties in Israel and Casualties of the 2006 Lebanon War#Foreign civilian casualties in Lebanon for a complete and adequately sourced list ^ \"Lebanon – Amnesty International Report 2007\" . Human Rights in Lebanese Republic . Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. ^ Israel/Lebanon: Out of all proportion – civilians bear the brunt of the war , Amnesty International, November 2006. ^ \"Implementation of General Assembly Resolution 60/251 of March 2006 entitled \"Human Rights Council\" \" (PDF) . United Nations Human Rights Council. 23 November 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2013. ^ McRae, D.M.; De Mestral, A.L.C. (2010). The Canadian Yearbook of International Law . UBC Press. ISBN 9780774859172 . ^ SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament, And International Security , Oxford University Press, page 69. ^ Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law:Volume 9; Volume 2006 . T.M.C Asser Press. 2006. ISBN 978-90-6704-269-7 . ^ Why They Died: Civilian Casualties in Lebanon during the 2006 War , Human Rights Watch, September 2007 ^ Gross, Michael; Gross, Michael L. (2010). Moral Dilemmas of Modern War: Torture, Assassination, and Blackmail in an Age of Asymmetric Conflict . Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-521-86615-6 . ^ Cite error: The named reference JP250 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL)\" . United Nations. 6 August 2009. Archived from the original on 10 December 2010 . Retrieved 16 January 2011 . ^ Wahab, Hadi (2022). Hezbollah:A Regional Armed Non-State Actor . Taylor & Francis . p. 69. ^ \"Clashes spread to Lebanon as Hezbollah raids Israel\" . International Herald Tribune . 12 July 2006. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009. ^ Myre, Greg; Erlanger, Steven (13 July 2006). \"Israelis Enter Lebanon After Attacks\" . The New York Times . ^ \"Israeli warplanes hit Beirut suburb\" . CNN. 14 July 2006 . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . ^ Cody, Edward (24 August 2006). \"Lebanese Premier Seeks U.S. Help in Lifting Blockade\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . ^ Urquhart, Conal (11 August 2006). \"Computerised weaponry and high morale\" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 30 August 2006 . Retrieved 8 October 2006 . ^ Shaikh, Shaan; Williams, Ian (26 June 2018). \"Missiles and Rockets of Hezbollah\" . Missile Threat . Missile Defense Project at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) . Retrieved 24 June 2025 . ^ Pannell, Ian (9 September 2006). \"Lebanon breathes after the blockade\" . BBC News . Retrieved 13 July 2008 . ^ \"UN peacekeepers: Israeli troops still in Lebanon\" . CNN . Retrieved 20 September 2014 . ^ Hassan Nasrallah (22 September 2006). \"Sayyed Nasrallah Speech on the Divine Victory Rally in Beirut on 22-09-2006\" . al-Ahed magazine . Retrieved 10 August 2020 . ^ \"English Summary of the Winograd Commission Report\" . The New York Times . 30 January 2008 . Retrieved 10 August 2020 . ^ \"Cloud of Syria's war hangs over Lebanese cleric's death\" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 2 April 2019 . Retrieved 20 September 2014 . ^ Reuters, 12 September 2006; Al-Hayat (London), 13 September 2006 ^ \"Country Report—Lebanon,\" The Economist Intelligence Unit, no. 4 (2006), pp. 3–6. ^ \"Lebanon Death Toll Hits 1,300\", by Robert Fisk , 17 August 2006, The Independent ^ Israel Vs. Iran: The Shadow War , by Yaakov Katz, (NY 2012), page 17 ^ \"Lebanon Under Siege\" . Lebanon Higher Relief Council. 2007. Archived from the original on 27 December 2007. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (12 July 2006). \"Hizbullah attacks northern Israel and Israel's response\" ; retrieved 5 March 2007. ^ \"Middle East crisis: Facts and Figures\" . BBC News . 31 August 2006. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008 . Retrieved 13 July 2008 . ^ \"Israel says it will relinquish positions to Lebanese army\" . USA Today . 15 August 2006 . Retrieved 25 November 2011 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Decolonization",
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   "lead_before": "Undoing political, economic and cultural legacies of colonisation This article is about the undoing of colonialism. For medical interventions, see Decolonization (medicine) . Decolonization is the ending of colonialism , the latter being the process whereby imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories, often overseas. The meanings and applications of the term are disputed. Some scholars of decolonization focus especially on independence movements in the colonies and the collapse of global colonial empires . As a movement to establish independence for colonized territories from their respective metropoles , decolonization began in 1775 with the American Revolution in North America against the British Empire . The Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century saw the French colonial empire , the Spanish Empire , and Portugal face decolonization with the Haitian Revolution , the Spanish American wars of independence , and the independence of Brazil from Portugal. A major wave of decolonization occurred in the aftermath of the First World War , including in the United States and the Empire of Japan . Another wave of decolonization occurred after the Second World War , and many countries gained their independence in the following years. The last wave of decolonization occurred after the Cold War with the collapse of the Soviet Union , the independence of Palau , and the handovers of Hong Kong and Macau . Seventeen territories remain under the United Nations classification of non-self-governing territories . ^ Note however discussion of (for example) the Russian and Nazi empires below. ^ Hack, Karl (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences . Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 255– 257. ISBN 978-0-02-865965-7 . ^ John Lynch, ed. Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826: Old and New World Origins (1995). ^ Macau and the end of empire Archived 2015-10-16 at the Wayback Machine , 18 December 1999. BBC News",
   "lead_after": "Undoing political, economic and cultural legacies of colonisation This article is about the undoing of colonialism. For medical interventions, see Decolonization (medicine) . Decolonization is the ending of colonialism , the latter being the process whereby imperial nations establish and dominate foreign territories, often overseas. The meanings and applications of the term are disputed. Some scholars of decolonization focus especially on independence movements in the colonies and the collapse of global colonial empires . As a movement to establish independence for colonized territories from their respective metropoles , decolonization began in 1775 with the American Revolution in North America against the British Empire . The Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century saw the French colonial empire , the Spanish Empire , and Portugal face decolonization with the Haitian Revolution , the Spanish American wars of independence , and the independence of Brazil from Portugal. A major wave of decolonization occurred in the aftermath of the First World War , including in the United States and the Empire of Japan . Another wave of decolonization occurred after the Second World War , and many countries gained their independence in the following years. The last wave of decolonization occurred after the Cold War with the collapse of the Soviet Union , the independence of Palau , and the handovers of Hong Kong and Macau . Seventeen territories remain under the United Nations classification of non-self-governing territories . ^ Note however discussion of (for example) the Russian and Nazi empires below. ^ Hack, Karl (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences . Detroit: Macmillan Reference. pp. 255– 257. ISBN 978-0-02-865965-7 . ^ John Lynch, ed. Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826: Old and New World Origins (1995). ^ Macau and the end of empire Archived 2015-10-16 at the Wayback Machine , 18 December 1999. BBC News"
  },
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   "title": "Ali Khamenei",
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   "lead_before": "Supreme Leader of Iran from 1989 to 2026 Not to be confused with his predecessor, Ruhollah Khomeini , or his son and successor, Mojtaba Khamenei . Personal details Born Ali Hosseini Khamenei ( 1939-04-19 ) 19 April 1939 Mashhad , Iran Died 28 February 2026 (2026-02-28) (aged 86) Tehran , Iran Cause of death Assassination by airstrike Party IRP (1979–1987) Independent (from 1989) Other political affiliations Combatant Clergy Association (1977–1989) Spouse Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh ​ ​ ( m. 1964) ​ Children 6, including Mostafa , Mojtaba , and Masoud Parent Javad Khamenei (father) Relatives Khamenei family Education Najaf Seminary Qom Seminary Signature Website english .khamenei .ir Military service Branch/service Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Irregular Warfare Headquarters Years of service 1979–1989 Commands Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces Battles/wars Iran–Iraq War Operation Samen-ol-A'emeh 2024 Iran–Israel conflict Twelve-Day War 2026 Iran war X Personal life Main interests Uṣūl al-Fiqh Tafsir Notable idea Fatwa against nuclear weapons Religious life Religion Islam Denomination Twelver Shi'a Jurisprudence Ja'fari Creed Usuli Muslim leader Teacher Husayn Burujardi Ruhollah Khomeini Khamenei's voice Khamenei speaking at the Hussainiya of Lovers of Karbala in Sari, Iran Recorded 14 October 1995 Personal Family Bibliography Political positions Revolutionary era and presidency Iranian Revolution Oct 1981 presidential election 1985 presidential election Iran–Iraq War 2nd Supreme Leader of Iran 1989 leadership election Office of the Supreme Leader of Iran Provincial representatives 8-Article Command Nuclear weapons fatwa Fatwa on Sunni revered figures Correspondence with Barack Obama Israel won't exist in 25 years October 2024 Friday Prayer in Tehran October 2024 strikes on Israel Twelve-Day War ceasefire 2026 Iran war Protests, slogans, and social policy Mahsa Amini protests 2019–2020 protests 2025–2026 protests 2026 diaspora protests Death to Khamenei Death to the Dictator Statement of 14 Political Activists Sex segregation Works and writings A 250 Years Old Person An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran Ghena Palestine Ruhe-Tawhid, Nafye Obudiate GheireKhoda Sharh-e Esm \" Second Phase of the Revolution \" \" To the Youth in Europe and North America \" \" To the Youth in Western Countries \" Assassination 1981 attempt Reactions State funeral v t e Ali Hosseini Khamenei (19 April 1939 – 28 February 2026) was an Iranian politician and Shia cleric who served as the second supreme leader of Iran from 1989 until his assassination in 2026 . A member of the Khamenei family , he previously served as the third president of Iran from 1981 to 1989. He held the title Grand Ayatollah , and his tenure as supreme leader, spanning 36 years and six months, made him the longest-serving head of state in West Asia at the time of his death. Born in Mashhad to the Khamenei family , he studied at a hawza there before settling in Qom in 1958, where he attended the classes of Ruhollah Khomeini . Khamenei became involved in opposition to Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , and was arrested six times before being exiled for three years by the Pahlavi government . Khamenei was a mainstream figure in the Iranian Revolution , and upon its success, held many posts in the newly established Islamic republic . In the aftermath of the revolution , he was the target of an attempted assassination that paralysed his right arm. Khamenei served as the third president of Iran from 1981 to 1989 during the Iran–Iraq War , when he also developed close ties to the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). After the death of Ruhollah Khomeini in 1989, Khamenei was elected supreme leader by the Assembly of Experts . During the deliberations, Khamenei expressed reservations about his own religious qualifications and suitability for the position, as he was a mid-ranking cleric and did not meet the constitutional requirement of marja' . The constitution was subsequently amended to remove that requirement, and the Assembly reconfirmed his leadership later that year. As supreme leader, Khamenei supported Iran's nuclear program for civilian use while issuing a fatwa forbidding the production of weapons of mass destruction. Khamenei favoured economic privatization of Iranian state-owned industries and, using its oil and gas reserves, transformed Iran into an \" energy superpower \". His foreign policy centered on Shia Islamism and exporting the Islamic Revolution . Khamenei played a pivotal role in the development of the IRGC, transforming it into a primary tool for domestic control and regional influence, in turn making Iran a regional power . Under Khamenei, Iran supported the Axis of Resistance coalition in the Syrian civil war , the War in Iraq , the Yemeni civil war , and the Gaza war , as well as Russia during the Russo-Ukrainian war . A staunch critic of Israel and of Zionism , Khamenei supported the Palestinians in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict ; his rhetoric included calls for Israel's destruction and antisemitic tropes . Under Khamenei, Iran was involved in proxy wars with Israel and Saudi Arabia . In 2025 and 2026, tensions with Israel and the United States escalated into the Twelve-Day War and an ongoing conflict, during the latter of which Khamenei was assassinated. The Assembly of Experts elected his son Mojtaba as successor on 8 March. Identified as a pragmatic hardliner, Khamenei sidelined leftist factions, moderate clerics, and political dissidents, while occasionally easing restrictions when the regime's stability or legitimacy had been threatened. His leadership was closely associated with the expansion of state militarization and the consolidation of power within the office of the supreme leader. His critics characterized him as an authoritarian responsible for political repression , state-sanctioned violence, and other injustices. Journalists, activists, and other individuals were persecuted for actions including insulting the supreme leader, sometimes alongside blasphemy charges , with penalties ranging from imprisonment to corporal punishment. There were numerous major protests under his rule, including in 1999 , 2009 , 2017–2018 , 2018–2019 , 2022–2023 , and 2025–26 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Reals, Tucker (1 March 2026). \"Iran names three men for interim Leadership Council to pick next supreme leader\" . CBS News . Archived from the original on 1 March 2026 . Retrieved 1 March 2026 . ^ \"چه کسی در نخستین انتخابات خبرگان اول شد؟ +جدول (\"Who came first in the first election of the Experts?\" )\" . mashreghnews.ir . 7 January 2014. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. ^ \"Parliament members\" (in Persian). Iranian Majlis . Archived from the original on 7 July 2014 . Retrieved 28 October 2014 . ^ \"جامعه روحانيت مبارز جوان مي‌شود\" [Combatant Clergy Association gets younger] (in Persian). Fararu. 8 July 2012. 118101. Archived from the original on 2 September 2016 . Retrieved 25 June 2016 . ^ \"جامعه روحانيت مبارز جوان مي‌شود\" [Combatant Clergy Association gets younger] (in Persian). Fararu. 8 July 2012. 118101. Archived from the original on 2 September 2016 . Retrieved 25 June 2016 . ^ Raee, Sajjad (Winter 2008). Ardestani, Hussein (ed.). نقش آیت‌الله خامنه‌ای در دفاع مقدس: سال اول جنگ [Ayatollah Khamanei's Role in the Sacred Defense – During the First Year] (PDF) . Negin-e Iran – Quarterly for Studies of Iran–Iraq War (in Persian). 7 (26): 9– 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2016 . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference cgie was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Britannica was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, Hard-Line Cleric Who Made Iran a Regional Power, Is Dead at 86\" , The New York Times , 28 February 2026. ^ \"Iran committed crimes against humanity during protest crackdown, UN says - Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 9 February 2026 . Retrieved 7 March 2026 . ^ Northam, Jackie (2 September 2024). \"An Iranian writer is sentenced to 12 years after tweeting a dot at the supreme leader\" . Houston Public Media . Retrieved 11 March 2026 . ^ \"Iranian Labor Activist Gets 3 Years for Criticizing Supreme Leader\" . www.iranintl.com . 14 May 2024 . Retrieved 11 March 2026 . ^ \"Human Rights Violations in Iran Under the Leadership of Ali Khamenei (1989–2026) - Iran HRM\" . 3 March 2026 . Retrieved 11 March 2026 . ^ \"Iran\" . United States Department of State . Retrieved 11 March 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Supreme Leader of Iran from 1989 to 2026 Personal details Born Ali Hosseini Khamenei ( 1939-04-19 ) 19 April 1939 Mashhad , Iran Died 28 February 2026 (2026-02-28) (aged 86) Tehran , Iran Cause of death Assassination by airstrike Resting place Imam Reza shrine Party IRP (1979–1987) Independent (from 1989) Other political affiliations Combatant Clergy Association (1977–1989) Spouse Mansoureh Khojasteh Bagherzadeh ​ ​ ( m. 1964) ​ Children 6, including Mostafa , Mojtaba , and Masoud Parents Javad Khamenei (father) Khadijeh Mirdamadi (mother) Relatives Khamenei family Education Najaf Seminary Qom Seminary Signature Website english .khamenei .ir Military service Branch/service Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Irregular Warfare Headquarters Years of service 1979–1989 Commands Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces Battles/wars Iranian Revolution Aftermath of the Iranian Revolution ( WIA ) Iran–Iraq War Operation Samen-ol-A'emeh Iran–Israel conflict 2024 Iran–Israel conflict Twelve-Day War 2026 Iran war X Personal life Main interests Uṣūl al-Fiqh Tafsir Notable idea Fatwa against nuclear weapons Religious life Religion Islam Denomination Twelver Shi'a Jurisprudence Ja'fari Creed Usuli Muslim leader Teacher Husayn Burujardi Ruhollah Khomeini Khamenei's voice Khamenei speaking at the Hussainiya of Lovers of Karbala in Sari, Iran Recorded 14 October 1995 Personal Family Bibliography Political positions Revolutionary era and presidency Iranian Revolution Oct 1981 presidential election 1985 presidential election Iran–Iraq War 2nd Supreme Leader of Iran 1989 leadership election Office of the Supreme Leader of Iran Provincial representatives 8-Article Command Nuclear weapons fatwa Fatwa on Sunni revered figures Correspondence with Barack Obama Israel won't exist in 25 years October 2024 Friday Prayer in Tehran October 2024 strikes on Israel Twelve-Day War ceasefire 2026 Iran war Protests, slogans, and social policy Mahsa Amini protests 2019–2020 protests 2025–2026 protests 2026 diaspora protests Death to Khamenei Death to the Dictator Statement of 14 Political Activists Sex segregation Works and writings A 250 Years Old Person An Outline of Islamic Thought in the Quran Ghena Palestine Ruhe-Tawhid, Nafye Obudiate GheireKhoda Sharh-e Esm \" Second Phase of the Revolution \" \" To the Youth in Europe and North America \" \" To the Youth in Western Countries \" Assassination 1981 attempt Reactions State funeral v t e Ali Hosseini Khamenei (19 April 1939 – 28 February 2026) was an Iranian politician and Shia cleric who served as the second supreme leader of Iran from 1989 until his assassination in 2026 . A member of the Khamenei family who held the title Grand Ayatollah , he previously served as the third president of Iran from 1981 to 1989. His 36-year tenure as supreme leader made him the longest-serving head of state in West Asia at the time of his death. Born in Mashhad to the Khamenei family , he studied at a hawza there before settling in Qom in 1958, where he attended the classes of Ruhollah Khomeini . Khamenei became involved in opposition to Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , and was arrested six times before being exiled for three years by the Pahlavi government . Khamenei was a mainstream figure in the Iranian Revolution , and upon its success, held many posts in the newly established Islamic republic . In the aftermath of the revolution , he was the target of an attempted assassination that paralysed his right arm. Khamenei served as the third president of Iran from 1981 to 1989 during the Iran–Iraq War , when he also developed close ties to the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). After the death of Ruhollah Khomeini in 1989, Khamenei was elected supreme leader by the Assembly of Experts . During the deliberations, Khamenei expressed reservations about his own religious qualifications and suitability for the position, as he was a mid-ranking cleric and did not meet the constitutional requirement of marja' . The constitution was subsequently amended to remove that requirement, and the Assembly reconfirmed his leadership later that year. As supreme leader, Khamenei supported Iran's nuclear program for civilian use while issuing a fatwa forbidding the production of weapons of mass destruction. Khamenei favoured economic privatization of Iranian state-owned industries and, using its oil and gas reserves, transformed Iran into an \" energy superpower \". His foreign policy centered on Shia Islamism and exporting the Islamic Revolution . Khamenei played a pivotal role in shaping Iran's military and paramilitary apparatus following the 1979 Islamic Revolution , especially the IRGC, transforming it into a primary tool for domestic control and regional influence, in turn making Iran a regional power . Under Khamenei, Iran supported the Axis of Resistance coalition in the Syrian civil war , the War in Iraq , the Yemeni civil war , and the Gaza war , as well as Russia during the Russo-Ukrainian war . A staunch critic of Israel and of Zionism , Khamenei supported the Palestinians in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict ; his rhetoric included calls for Israel's destruction and antisemitic tropes . Under Khamenei, Iran was involved in proxy wars with Israel and Saudi Arabia . In 2025 and 2026, tensions with Israel and the United States escalated into the Twelve-Day War and an ongoing conflict , during the latter of which Khamenei was assassinated. The Assembly of Experts elected his son Mojtaba as successor on 8 March. Identified as a pragmatic hardliner, Khamenei sidelined leftist factions, moderate clerics, and political dissidents, while occasionally easing restrictions when the regime's stability or legitimacy had been threatened. His leadership was closely associated with the expansion of state militarization and the consolidation of power within the office of the supreme leader. His critics characterized him as an authoritarian responsible for political repression , state-sanctioned violence, and other injustices. Journalists, activists, and other individuals were persecuted for actions including insulting the supreme leader, sometimes alongside blasphemy charges , with penalties ranging from imprisonment to corporal punishment. There were numerous major protests under his rule, including in 1999 , 2009 , 2017–2018 , 2018–2019 , 2022–2023 , and 2025–26 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Reals, Tucker (1 March 2026). \"Iran names three men for interim Leadership Council to pick next supreme leader\" . CBS News . Archived from the original on 1 March 2026 . Retrieved 1 March 2026 . ^ \"جامعه روحانيت مبارز جوان مي‌شود\" [Combatant Clergy Association gets younger] (in Persian). Fararu. 8 July 2012. 118101. Archived from the original on 2 September 2016 . Retrieved 25 June 2016 . ^ \"جامعه روحانيت مبارز جوان مي‌شود\" [Combatant Clergy Association gets younger] (in Persian). Fararu. 8 July 2012. 118101. Archived from the original on 2 September 2016 . Retrieved 25 June 2016 . ^ Raee, Sajjad (Winter 2008). Ardestani, Hussein (ed.). نقش آیت‌الله خامنه‌ای در دفاع مقدس: سال اول جنگ [Ayatollah Khamanei's Role in the Sacred Defense – During the First Year] (PDF) . Negin-e Iran – Quarterly for Studies of Iran–Iraq War (in Persian). 7 (26): 9– 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2016 . Retrieved 15 January 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference cgie was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Ali, Marium (3 July 2026). \"Mapping Iran's Ali Khamenei funeral: Where mourners will gather each day\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 5 July 2026 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Britannica was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, Hard-Line Cleric Who Made Iran a Regional Power, Is Dead at 86\" , The New York Times , 28 February 2026. ^ \"Iran committed crimes against humanity during protest crackdown, UN says - Archived copy\" . Archived from the original on 9 February 2026 . Retrieved 7 March 2026 . ^ Northam, Jackie (2 September 2024). \"An Iranian writer is sentenced to 12 years after tweeting a dot at the supreme leader\" . Houston Public Media . Retrieved 11 March 2026 . ^ \"Iranian Labor Activist Gets 3 Years for Criticizing Supreme Leader\" . www.iranintl.com . 14 May 2024 . Retrieved 11 March 2026 . ^ \"Human Rights Violations in Iran Under the Leadership of Ali Khamenei (1989–2026) - Iran HRM\" . 3 March 2026 . Retrieved 11 March 2026 . ^ \"Iran\" . United States Department of State . Retrieved 11 March 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Pittsburgh synagogue shooting",
   "pageid": 58893695,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-24T02:55:33Z",
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   "lead_before": "2018 mass shooting in Pennsylvania, U.S. On October 27, 2018, a mass shooting occurred at the Tree of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation synagogue in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania . The congregation, along with New Light Congregation and Congregation Dor Hadash, which also worshiped in the building, was attacked during Shabbat morning services . The perpetrator killed eleven people and wounded six, in the deadliest attack on a local Jewish community in American history. The perpetrator, 46-year-old Robert Gregory Bowers, was shot multiple times by police and arrested at the scene. Bowers had earlier posted antisemitic comments against HIAS (formerly, Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society) on the online alt-tech social network Gab . Dor Hadash had participated in HIAS's National Refugee Shabbat the previous week. Referring to Central American migrant caravans and immigrants , Bowers posted a message on Gab in which he wrote that \"HIAS likes to bring invaders in that kill our people. I can't sit by and watch my people get slaughtered. Screw your optics, I'm going in.\" He was charged with 63 federal crimes, some of them capital crimes . Bowers pleaded not guilty. In 2023, he was found guilty on all counts and sentenced to death by lethal injection. The shooting was widely condemned. President Donald Trump 's visit to Pittsburgh in the aftermath of the attack was met by protests, with some blaming him for an upsurge in white nationalist violence. In the years following the attack efforts were made to increase security at American synagogues and other Jewish buildings. Millions of dollars were raised for victims and survivors of the attack. There are plans to build a memorial complex at the site of the shooting. ^ \"What we know about Robert Bowers, suspect in mass shooting at Pittsburgh synagogue\" . WPXI . October 28, 2018. Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved October 28, 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT-counts-20181027+note was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Additional Charges Filed in Tree of Life Synagogue Shooting\" . United States Department of Justice . January 29, 2019. ^ \"Synagogue Life\" . Tree of Life * Or l'Simcha Congregation. Archived from the original on October 31, 2018 . Retrieved October 27, 2018 . ^ Selk, Avi; Craig, Tim; Boburg, Shawn; Ba Tran, Andrew (October 28, 2018). \" 'They showed his photo, and my stomach just dropped': Neighbors recall synagogue massacre suspect as a loner\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved October 30, 2018 . ^ Ailworth, Erin; Hagerty, James R. (October 28, 2018). \"Pittsburgh Shooting Suspect Described as Man Who Kept to Himself – Robert G. Bowers was active on social media, but few recall him in person; 'very unremarkable, normal—which is scary' says one neighbor\" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved October 29, 2018 . ^ Ove, Torsten (February 11, 2019). \"Robert Bowers, accused in Tree of Life synagogue shootings, arraigned\" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Archived from the original on February 22, 2019 . Retrieved August 9, 2023 . ^ Andone, Dakin; Hanna, Jason; Sterling, Joe; Murphy, Paul P. (October 28, 2018). \"Hate crime charges filed in Pittsburgh synagogue shooting that left 11 dead\" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 28, 2018 . Retrieved October 28, 2018 . ^ Shannon, Sant (October 27, 2018). \"What's Known About Robert Bowers, The Suspect In The Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooting\" . NPR . Archived from the original on October 27, 2018 . Retrieved October 27, 2018 . ^ Vesoulis, Abby (October 27, 2018). \"How Gab Became the Social Media Site Where the Pittsburgh Suspect's Anti-Semitism Thrived\" . Time . Archived from the original on October 28, 2018 . Retrieved October 27, 2018 . ^ Ward, Paula Reed; Lord, Rich; Navatril, Liz (October 27, 2018). \"Suspect identified as Robert Bowers, 46, in Squirrel Hill synagogue shooting\" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Archived from the original on October 27, 2018 . Retrieved October 27, 2018 . ^ \"HIAS, the Jewish Agency Criticized by the Shooting Suspect, Has a History of Aiding Refugees\" . New York Times . October 28, 2018 ^ O'Brien, Brendan; Allen, Jonathan (August 3, 2023). Potter, Mark; Osterman, Cynthia (eds.). \"Pittsburgh jury condemns Tree of Life synagogue killer to death\" . Reuters . \"Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooter Robert Bowers Sentenced to Death\" . Campaign Against Antisemitism . August 2, 2023 . Retrieved October 12, 2024 . Souza, Sabrina; Brown, Nicki; Levenson, Eric (August 2, 2023). \"Pittsburgh synagogue shooter sentenced to death for killing 11 worshippers in 2018 massacre\" . CNN . Retrieved August 2, 2023 . Mayo, Bob (August 3, 2023). \"Robert Bowers formally sentenced to death in Pittsburgh synagogue shooting\" . WTAE . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "2018 mass shooting in Pennsylvania, U.S. On October 27, 2018, a mass shooting occurred at the Tree of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation synagogue in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania . The congregation, along with New Light Congregation and Congregation Dor Hadash, which also worshiped in the building, was attacked during Shabbat morning services . The perpetrator, 46-year-old Robert Gregory Bowers, killed eleven people and wounded six, in the deadliest attack on a local Jewish community in American history. After being shot multiple times by police, Bowers was arrested at the scene. Bowers had earlier posted antisemitic comments against HIAS (formerly, Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society) on the online alt-tech social network Gab . Dor Hadash had participated in HIAS's National Refugee Shabbat the previous week. Referring to Central American migrant caravans and immigrants , Bowers posted a message on Gab in which he wrote that \"HIAS likes to bring invaders in that kill our people. I can't sit by and watch my people get slaughtered. Screw your optics, I'm going in.\" He was charged with 63 federal crimes, some of them capital crimes . Bowers pleaded not guilty. In 2023, he was found guilty on all counts and sentenced to death by lethal injection. The shooting was widely condemned. President Donald Trump 's visit to Pittsburgh in the aftermath of the attack was met by protests, with some blaming him for an upsurge in white nationalist violence. In the years following the attack efforts were made to increase security at American synagogues and other Jewish buildings. Millions of dollars were raised for victims and survivors of the attack. There are plans to build a memorial complex at the site of the shooting. ^ \"What we know about Robert Bowers, suspect in mass shooting at Pittsburgh synagogue\" . WPXI . October 28, 2018. Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved October 28, 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT-counts-20181027+note was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Additional Charges Filed in Tree of Life Synagogue Shooting\" . United States Department of Justice . January 29, 2019. ^ \"Synagogue Life\" . Tree of Life * Or l'Simcha Congregation. Archived from the original on October 31, 2018 . Retrieved October 27, 2018 . ^ Selk, Avi; Craig, Tim; Boburg, Shawn; Ba Tran, Andrew (October 28, 2018). \" 'They showed his photo, and my stomach just dropped': Neighbors recall synagogue massacre suspect as a loner\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved October 30, 2018 . ^ Ailworth, Erin; Hagerty, James R. (October 28, 2018). \"Pittsburgh Shooting Suspect Described as Man Who Kept to Himself – Robert G. Bowers was active on social media, but few recall him in person; 'very unremarkable, normal—which is scary' says one neighbor\" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on October 29, 2018 . Retrieved October 29, 2018 . ^ Ove, Torsten (February 11, 2019). \"Robert Bowers, accused in Tree of Life synagogue shootings, arraigned\" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Archived from the original on February 22, 2019 . Retrieved August 9, 2023 . ^ Andone, Dakin; Hanna, Jason; Sterling, Joe; Murphy, Paul P. (October 28, 2018). \"Hate crime charges filed in Pittsburgh synagogue shooting that left 11 dead\" . CNN . Archived from the original on October 28, 2018 . Retrieved October 28, 2018 . ^ Shannon, Sant (October 27, 2018). \"What's Known About Robert Bowers, The Suspect In The Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooting\" . NPR . Archived from the original on October 27, 2018 . Retrieved October 27, 2018 . ^ Vesoulis, Abby (October 27, 2018). \"How Gab Became the Social Media Site Where the Pittsburgh Suspect's Anti-Semitism Thrived\" . Time . Archived from the original on October 28, 2018 . Retrieved October 27, 2018 . ^ Ward, Paula Reed; Lord, Rich; Navatril, Liz (October 27, 2018). \"Suspect identified as Robert Bowers, 46, in Squirrel Hill synagogue shooting\" . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . Archived from the original on October 27, 2018 . Retrieved October 27, 2018 . ^ \"HIAS, the Jewish Agency Criticized by the Shooting Suspect, Has a History of Aiding Refugees\" . New York Times . October 28, 2018 ^ O'Brien, Brendan; Allen, Jonathan (August 3, 2023). Potter, Mark; Osterman, Cynthia (eds.). \"Pittsburgh jury condemns Tree of Life synagogue killer to death\" . Reuters . \"Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooter Robert Bowers Sentenced to Death\" . Campaign Against Antisemitism . August 2, 2023 . Retrieved October 12, 2024 . Souza, Sabrina; Brown, Nicki; Levenson, Eric (August 2, 2023). \"Pittsburgh synagogue shooter sentenced to death for killing 11 worshippers in 2018 massacre\" . CNN . Retrieved August 2, 2023 . Mayo, Bob (August 3, 2023). \"Robert Bowers formally sentenced to death in Pittsburgh synagogue shooting\" . WTAE . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Tel al-Sultan attack",
   "pageid": 77020725,
   "revid_before": 1348300263,
   "revid_after": 1363132269,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-08T07:01:56Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tel_al-Sultan_attack&oldid=1348300263",
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   "lead_before": "2024 Israeli airstrike on refugee camp in Gaza \"Rafah tent massacre\" redirects here. For other mass killings in Rafah, see Rafah massacre . On 26 May 2024, the Israeli Air Force bombed a displacement camp in Tel al-Sultan , Rafah . The attack, which set the camp on fire, killed between 45 and 50 Palestinians and injured more than 200. Sometimes referred to as the Rafah tent massacre or as the Tent Massacre ( Arabic : مجزرة الخيم , romanized : Majzarat al-khiyam ), it was the deadliest incident of the Rafah offensive . When Israel invaded Rafah and ordered the evacuation of its east, some citizens fled to other parts of the city, like Tel al-Sultan, seeking safety. One week before the bombing, Israel had designated the neighborhood as a \"safe zone\" and dropped leaflets instructing Palestinians to move there. Two days before the attack, the International Court of Justice ordered Israel to halt its offensive, but Israel interpreted the order differently and continued its operations. On the night of the attack, Israel struck the neighborhood with two U.S. made GBU-39 glide bombs . The bombs ignited a fire in the \"Kuwaiti Peace\" tent camp; many civilians were trapped and burned alive . Israel killed four militants and injured one commander. It claimed it attacked an outer \"Hamas compound\" and accidentally set off the fire. However, videos and satellite images showed that the location of the airstrike was inside the refugee camp itself, and some sources alleged Israel deliberately targeted civilians. Military analysts stated that bombs used by Israel have a large effect radius, and therefore should not have been used in a densely populated civilian area. An investigation by Amnesty International concluded that militants were in the camp, but that Israel knowingly put civilians at risk. Images of the attack spread internationally, described as \"some of the worst\" of the war. ^ Cite error: The named reference TG was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference ABC was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Israeli strike hits Rafah area after Hamas barrage\" . bbc.com . BBC. 27 May 2024. Archived from the original on 17 June 2024 . Retrieved 27 May 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Al Jazeera Staff. \"Israel attacked Rafah at night, 'all the people burned' \" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 7 October 2024 . Retrieved 14 November 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "2024 Israeli airstrike on refugee camp in Gaza \"Rafah tent massacre\" redirects here. For other mass killings in Rafah, see Rafah massacre . On 26 May 2024, the Israeli Air Force bombed a displacement camp in Tel al-Sultan , Rafah . The attack, which set the camp on fire, killed between 45 and 50 Palestinians and injured more than 200. Sometimes referred to as the Rafah tent massacre or as the Tent Massacre ( Arabic : مجزرة الخيم , romanized : Majzarat al-khiyam ), it was the deadliest incident of the Rafah offensive . When Israel invaded Rafah and ordered the evacuation of its east, some citizens fled to other parts of the city, like Tel al-Sultan, seeking safety. One week before the bombing, Israel had designated the neighborhood as a \"safe zone\" and dropped leaflets instructing Palestinians to move there. Two days before the attack, the International Court of Justice ordered Israel to halt its offensive, but Israel interpreted the order differently and continued its operations. On the night of the attack, Israel struck the neighborhood with two U.S. made GBU-39 glide bombs . The bombs ignited a fire in the \"Kuwaiti Peace\" tent camp; many civilians were trapped and burned alive . Israel killed four militants and injured one commander. It claimed it attacked an outer \"Hamas compound\" and accidentally set off the fire. However, videos and satellite images showed that the location of the airstrike was inside the refugee camp itself, and some sources alleged Israel deliberately targeted civilians. Military analysts stated that bombs used by Israel have a large effect radius, and therefore should not have been used in a densely populated civilian area. An investigation by Amnesty International concluded that militants were in the camp, but that Israel knowingly put civilians at risk. Images of the attack spread internationally, described as \"some of the worst\" of the war. ^ Cite error: The named reference TG was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference ABC was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference AP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Israeli strike hits Rafah area after Hamas barrage\" . bbc.com . BBC. 27 May 2024. Archived from the original on 17 June 2024 . Retrieved 27 May 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Al Jazeera Staff. \"Israel attacked Rafah at night, 'all the people burned' \" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 7 October 2024 . Retrieved 14 November 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "The Grayzone",
   "pageid": 62826005,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-24T03:19:46Z",
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   "lead_before": "US-based news website and blog This article is about the website. For the political term, see Grey-zone (international relations) . For other uses, see Grey zone . The Grayzone is an American news website and blog . It has been described as fringe and far-left by numerous sources. It was founded and is edited by American journalist Max Blumenthal . The website was initially founded as The Grayzone Project and was affiliated with AlterNet until early 2018. Coverage of The Grayzone has focused on its misleading reporting, its criticism of American foreign policy , and its sympathetic coverage of the Russian , Chinese and former Syrian governments. The Grayzone has been accused of downplaying and defending the persecution of Uyghurs in China , of publishing conspiracy theories about Xinjiang , Syria and other regions, and of publishing pro-Russian propaganda and disinformation , especially during the Russian invasion of Ukraine . ^ Cite error: The named reference Hale was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference VanderMade was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Allen was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross-2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross-2020 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sources describing The Grayzone as a blog: ^ Cite error: The named reference Casalicchio was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Zhang was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Thompson, Caitlin (July 30, 2020). \"Enter the Grayzone: fringe leftists deny the scale of China's Uyghur oppression\" . Coda Story . Archived from the original on October 19, 2021 . Retrieved September 12, 2021 . The Grayzone has followed a similar path on Syria, challenging reports of atrocities by the regime of President Bashar al-Assad. ...Based on a desire for a multipolar world, in which global military, cultural and economic power is distributed among multiple nation states and Western influence greatly diminished, they have been quick to argue on behalf of authoritarian regimes such as China and Syria. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chan was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Davis-2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sources characterizing The Grayzone as fringe: ^ Cite error: The named reference Lang was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Sebok was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Bloodworth-2020 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Foy was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference McGreevy was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Cuffe was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Antelava was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Dávid was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Cheng was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Bloc was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sources characterizing The Grayzone as far-left: ^ Cite error: The named reference Davis-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Wong was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Fiorella was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Freedman was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Chik was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Shezaf was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ DiMaggio, Anthony R.; Buscarnera, Brandon; Bucci, Rachael; Foley, Claire; Carlson, James (August 30, 2023). \"The Phenomenon of Fake News, Part 2: The News Media Respond to Trump\" . Fake News in America: Contested Meanings in the Post-Truth Era . Cambridge University Press . pp. 69– 70. doi : 10.1017/9781009067362.004 . ISBN 978-1-316-51245-6 . Archived from the original on October 5, 2023 . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . Finally, the Grayzone and MintPress News pursue another form of leftist engagement with the fake news phenomenon – condemning the mainstream media for fake news, while amplifying the propaganda of autocratic foreign governments. ^ Alieva, Iuliia; Kloo, Ian; Carley, Kathleen M. (June 12, 2024). \"Analyzing Russia's propaganda tactics on Twitter using mixed methods network analysis and natural language processing: a case study of the 2022 invasion of Ukraine\" . EPJ Data Science . 13 (1): 1– 13. doi : 10.1140/epjds/s13688-024-00479-w . ISSN 2193-1127 . We also observed the presence of low-credibility news accounts disseminating narratives that are anti-Ukraine, antisemitic, anti-West, anti-NATO, and promoting pro-Russia and pro-China propaganda narratives in English language (for instance, the Grayzone News and its bloggers). ^ ^ Chi, Zhang (June 23, 2022). \"Fighting Tigers or Flies? Towards Effective Counter-radicalization Narratives in China\" . China's International Communication and Relationship Building . p. 186. doi : 10.4324/9781003254157-14 . ISBN 9781003254157 . Digging into Zenz's anti-LGBT and anti-abortion history and labelling him a far-right researcher, the Grayzone itself did not go unchecked. Coda, a New York-based news platform, dismisses Blumenthal as a far-left supporter of the Syrian regime (Thompson, 2020). However, while Blumenthal's political view on Syria might say something about his potential bias on the Uyghur issue, Thompson does not respond to the evidence the Grayzone presented that challenges Zenz's research. ^ Cite error: The named reference Xiao was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Azeezah was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ellery was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Denied human rights abuses against Uyghurs \": ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Confidencial was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Skliarevska 2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "US-based news website and blog This article is about the website. For the political term, see Grey-zone (international relations) . For other uses, see Grey zone . The Grayzone is an American far-left news website and blog . It has been described as fringe by numerous sources. The site was founded and is edited by American journalist Max Blumenthal . It was initially founded as The Grayzone Project and was affiliated with AlterNet until early 2018. Coverage of The Grayzone has focused on its misleading reporting, its criticism of American foreign policy , and its sympathetic coverage of the Russian , Chinese and former Syrian governments. The Grayzone has been accused of downplaying and defending the persecution of Uyghurs in China , of publishing conspiracy theories about Xinjiang , Syria and other regions, and of publishing pro-Russian propaganda and disinformation , especially during the Russian invasion of Ukraine . ^ Cite error: The named reference Hale was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Thompson, Caitlin (July 30, 2020). \"Enter the Grayzone: fringe leftists deny the scale of China's Uyghur oppression\" . Coda Story . Archived from the original on October 19, 2021 . Retrieved September 12, 2021 . The Grayzone has followed a similar path on Syria, challenging reports of atrocities by the regime of President Bashar al-Assad. ...Based on a desire for a multipolar world, in which global military, cultural and economic power is distributed among multiple nation states and Western influence greatly diminished, they have been quick to argue on behalf of authoritarian regimes such as China and Syria. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lang was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Sebok was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Bloodworth-2020 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Foy was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference VanderMade was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference McGreevy was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Cuffe was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Antelava was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Dávid was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Cheng was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Bloc was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sources characterizing The Grayzone as far-left: ^ Cite error: The named reference Allen was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross-2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross-2020 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sources describing The Grayzone as a blog: ^ Cite error: The named reference Casalicchio was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Zhang was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Chan was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Davis-2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sources characterizing The Grayzone as fringe: ^ Cite error: The named reference Davis-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Wong was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Fiorella was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Freedman was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Chik was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Shezaf was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ DiMaggio, Anthony R.; Buscarnera, Brandon; Bucci, Rachael; Foley, Claire; Carlson, James (August 30, 2023). \"The Phenomenon of Fake News, Part 2: The News Media Respond to Trump\" . Fake News in America: Contested Meanings in the Post-Truth Era . Cambridge University Press . pp. 69– 70. doi : 10.1017/9781009067362.004 . ISBN 978-1-316-51245-6 . Archived from the original on October 5, 2023 . Retrieved September 23, 2023 . Finally, the Grayzone and MintPress News pursue another form of leftist engagement with the fake news phenomenon – condemning the mainstream media for fake news, while amplifying the propaganda of autocratic foreign governments. ^ Alieva, Iuliia; Kloo, Ian; Carley, Kathleen M. (June 12, 2024). \"Analyzing Russia's propaganda tactics on Twitter using mixed methods network analysis and natural language processing: a case study of the 2022 invasion of Ukraine\" . EPJ Data Science . 13 (1): 1– 13. doi : 10.1140/epjds/s13688-024-00479-w . ISSN 2193-1127 . We also observed the presence of low-credibility news accounts disseminating narratives that are anti-Ukraine, antisemitic, anti-West, anti-NATO, and promoting pro-Russia and pro-China propaganda narratives in English language (for instance, the Grayzone News and its bloggers). ^ ^ Chi, Zhang (June 23, 2022). \"Fighting Tigers or Flies? Towards Effective Counter-radicalization Narratives in China\" . China's International Communication and Relationship Building . p. 186. doi : 10.4324/9781003254157-14 . ISBN 9781003254157 . Digging into Zenz's anti-LGBT and anti-abortion history and labelling him a far-right researcher, the Grayzone itself did not go unchecked. Coda, a New York-based news platform, dismisses Blumenthal as a far-left supporter of the Syrian regime (Thompson, 2020). However, while Blumenthal's political view on Syria might say something about his potential bias on the Uyghur issue, Thompson does not respond to the evidence the Grayzone presented that challenges Zenz's research. ^ Cite error: The named reference Xiao was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Azeezah was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Ellery was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Denied human rights abuses against Uyghurs \": ^ Cite error: The named reference Ross was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Confidencial was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Skliarevska 2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Itamar Ben-Gvir",
   "pageid": 54504115,
   "revid_before": 1361388796,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-27T15:33:40Z",
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   "lead_before": "Israeli far-right politician and lawyer (born 1976) Itamar Ben-Gvir ( Hebrew : אִיתָמָר בֶּן גְּבִיר [itaˈmaʁ benˈgviʁ] ; born 6 May 1976) is an Israeli politician and lawyer who has served as the minister of national security since 2022, except for a two-month gap in early 2025. He is the leader of Otzma Yehudit (\"Jewish Power\"), an Israeli far-right , Kahanist and anti-Arab party which won six seats in the 2022 legislative election and is part of the thirty-seventh government of Israel . Ben-Gvir is a settler in the Israeli-occupied West Bank ; according to the BBC, his \"political background lies in Kahanism —a violently racist movement that supports the expulsion of Palestinians from their lands\". He has a long history of anti-Arab activism, leading to dozens of indictments and at least eight convictions of crimes including incitement to racism and support for, as well as possession of propaganda of, a terrorist organization (the now-illegal Kach political party). As a lawyer, he is known for defending Jews accused of Jewish extremist terrorism in Israeli courts. Ben-Gvir is known for being a provocateur and has attracted headlines for a variety of reasons: threatening Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin on live television in 1995 shortly before his assassination ; having had a portrait in his living room of Baruch Goldstein , a Jewish terrorist and mass murderer ; calling in 2019 for the expulsion of Arab citizens of Israel who are not loyal to the state; inciting violent clashes between Jewish settlers and Palestinians in the East Jerusalem neighbourhood of Sheikh Jarrah in 2021; and making highly controversial visits to the Temple Mount , where the al-Aqsa Mosque is located, in 2023 and 2024. On 18 January 2025, it was reported that Ben-Gvir intended to resign from his ministerial position in response to the approval and implementation of the three-phase Gaza war ceasefire deal . He resigned on 19 January 2025. Two months later, it was announced that he and other party members would return to the government after an agreement was reached, following the continuation of airstrikes in Gaza . ^ \"Ben Gvir's wife: Yes, I carry a gun, 'deal with it' \" . The Times of Israel . 14 November 2022. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 December 2023 . ^ Bateman, Tom (25 August 2023). \"US condemns Israeli minister Ben Gvir's 'inflammatory' Palestinian comments\" . BBC News. Archived from the original on 20 January 2024 . Retrieved 31 December 2023 . ^ Margalit, Ruth (20 February 2023). \"Itamar Ben-Gvir, Israel's Minister of Chaos\" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on 13 March 2023 . Retrieved 3 May 2025 . ^ Maltz, Judy (4 January 2016). \"The Lawyer for Jewish Terrorists Who Started Out by Stealing Rabin's Car Emblem\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 29 March 2023 . Retrieved 9 July 2017 . ^ Magid, Jacob (24 February 2019). \"Otzma Yehudit candidate: Critics have to go back 30 years in order to attack us\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 24 February 2019 . Retrieved 25 February 2019 . ^ Cite error: The named reference TOI was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Israeli far-right politician and lawyer (born 1976) Itamar Ben-Gvir ( Hebrew : אִיתָמָר בֶּן גְּבִיר [itaˈmaʁ benˈgviʁ] ; born 6 May 1976) is an Israeli politician and lawyer who has served as the minister of national security since 2022, except for a two-month gap in early 2025. He is the leader of Otzma Yehudit (\"Jewish Power\"), an Israeli far-right , Kahanist and anti-Arab party which won six seats in the 2022 legislative election and is part of the thirty-seventh government of Israel . Ben-Gvir is a settler in the Israeli-occupied West Bank ; according to the BBC, his \"political background lies in Kahanism —a violently racist movement that supports the expulsion of Palestinians from their lands\". He has a long history of anti-Arab activism, leading to dozens of indictments and at least eight convictions of crimes including incitement to racism and support for, as well as possession of propaganda of, a terrorist organization (the now-illegal Kach political party). As a lawyer, he is known for defending Jews accused of Jewish extremist terrorism in Israeli courts. Ben-Gvir is known for being a provocateur and has attracted headlines for a variety of reasons: threatening Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin on live television in 1995 shortly before his assassination ; having had a portrait in his living room of Baruch Goldstein , a Jewish terrorist and mass murderer ; calling in 2019 for the expulsion of Arab citizens of Israel who are not loyal to the state; inciting violent clashes between Jewish settlers and Palestinians in the East Jerusalem neighbourhood of Sheikh Jarrah in 2021; and making highly controversial visits to the Temple Mount , where the al-Aqsa Mosque is located, in 2023 and 2024. On 18 January 2025, it was reported that Ben-Gvir intended to resign from his ministerial position in response to the approval and implementation of the three-phase Gaza war ceasefire deal . He resigned on 19 January 2025. Two months later, it was announced that he and other party members would return to the government after an agreement was reached, following the continuation of airstrikes in Gaza . ^ \"Ben Gvir's wife: Yes, I carry a gun, 'deal with it' \" . The Times of Israel . 14 November 2022. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024 . Retrieved 20 December 2023 . ^ Bateman, Tom (25 August 2023). \"US condemns Israeli minister Ben Gvir's 'inflammatory' Palestinian comments\" . BBC News. Archived from the original on 20 January 2024 . Retrieved 31 December 2023 . ^ Margalit, Ruth (20 February 2023). \"Itamar Ben-Gvir, Israel's Minister of Chaos\" . The New Yorker . Archived from the original on 13 March 2023 . Retrieved 3 May 2025 . ^ Maltz, Judy (4 January 2016). \"The Lawyer for Jewish Terrorists Who Started Out by Stealing Rabin's Car Emblem\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 29 March 2023 . Retrieved 9 July 2017 . ^ Magid, Jacob (24 February 2019). \"Otzma Yehudit candidate: Critics have to go back 30 years in order to attack us\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 24 February 2019 . Retrieved 25 February 2019 . ^ Cite error: The named reference TOI was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Bezalel Smotrich",
   "pageid": 46196834,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-22T01:39:24Z",
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   "lead_before": "Israeli far-right politician and lawyer (born 1980) \"Smotrich\" redirects here. For places in western Ukraine, see Smotrych . Bezalel Yoel Smotrich ( Hebrew : בְּצַלְאֵל יוֹאֵל סְמוֹטְרִיץ׳ ; born 27 February 1980) is an Israeli politician and lawyer who has served as the Minister of Finance since 2022. The leader of the Religious Zionist Party , he previously served as a Knesset member for the Jewish Home and Yamina , leaving in 2023 after resigning under the Norwegian Law , allowing him to remain a minister in the government while his seat in the Knesset could be taken by another candidate from his party. Smotrich is a settler in the Israeli-occupied West Bank , living in the settlement of Kedumim , which is illegal under international law . His residence was also built illegally outside the settlement proper. Smotrich's statements, often dubbed \"racist\" and \"homophobic\", have led to several controversies. As part of the Israeli far-right , he is a supporter of expanding Israeli settlements in the West Bank, opposes Palestinian statehood , and denies the existence of a Palestinian people. As minister with powers in the occupied Palestinian territories, he has led clandestine Israeli efforts to annex territories in the West Bank, first as a fait accompli , then by force of law. ^ Hezki, Baruch (8 February 2023). \"צבי סוכות הושבע לכנסת\" . Israel National News (in Hebrew) . Retrieved 12 February 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Haaretz 2017-03-01 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference TOI 2022-10-30 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Tanno, Sophie (2 June 2024). \"Two far-right Israeli ministers threaten to topple the government if it accepts Biden peace plan\" . CNN . Retrieved 12 July 2024 . ^ Beaumont, Peter (24 June 2024). \"Israeli far-right minister speaks of effort to annex West Bank\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . ^ Loveluck, Louisa; Parker, Claire; Taha, Sufian (15 August 2024). \"Israel is redrawing the West Bank, cutting into a prospective Palestinian state\" . The Washington Post .",
   "lead_after": "Israeli far-right politician and lawyer (born 1980) \"Smotrich\" redirects here. For places in western Ukraine, see Smotrych . Bezalel Yoel Smotrich ( Hebrew : בְּצַלְאֵל יוֹאֵל סְמוֹטְרִיץ׳ ; born 27 February 1980) is an Israeli politician and lawyer who has served as the Minister of Finance since 2022. The leader of the Religious Zionist Party , he previously served as a Knesset member for the Jewish Home and Yamina , leaving in 2023 after resigning under the Norwegian Law , allowing him to remain a minister in the government while his seat in the Knesset could be taken by another candidate from his party. Smotrich is a settler in the Israeli-occupied West Bank , living in the settlement of Kedumim , which is illegal under international law . His residence was also built illegally outside the settlement proper. Smotrich's statements, often dubbed \"racist\" and \"homophobic\", have led to several controversies. As part of the Israeli far-right , he is a supporter of expanding Israeli settlements in the West Bank, opposes Palestinian statehood , and denies the existence of a Palestinian people. As minister with powers in the occupied Palestinian territories, he has led clandestine Israeli efforts to annex territories in the West Bank, first as a fait accompli , then by force of law. ^ Hezki, Baruch (8 February 2023). \"צבי סוכות הושבע לכנסת\" . Israel National News (in Hebrew) . Retrieved 12 February 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Haaretz 2017-03-01 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference TOI 2022-10-30 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Tanno, Sophie (2 June 2024). \"Two far-right Israeli ministers threaten to topple the government if it accepts Biden peace plan\" . CNN . Retrieved 12 July 2024 . ^ Beaumont, Peter (24 June 2024). \"Israeli far-right minister speaks of effort to annex West Bank\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . ^ Loveluck, Louisa; Parker, Claire; Taha, Sufian (15 August 2024). \"Israel is redrawing the West Bank, cutting into a prospective Palestinian state\" . The Washington Post ."
  },
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   "title": "Noam Chomsky",
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   "lead_before": "American linguist and activist (born 1928) \"Chomsky\" redirects here. For other uses, see Chomsky (disambiguation) . Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American intellectual , philosopher , linguist , political activist , and social critic . Sometimes called \"the father of modern linguistics\", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science . He is a laureate professor of linguistics at the University of Arizona and an institute professor emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Among the most cited living authors, Chomsky has written more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, and politics. In addition to his work in linguistics, since the 1960s, Chomsky has been an influential voice on the American Left as a consistent critic of the foreign policy of the United States , contemporary capitalism , and corporatocracy . Born to immigrant Ashkenazi Jews in Philadelphia , Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania . During his postgraduate work in the Harvard Society of Fellows , Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures , which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study . He created or co-created the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy , and the minimalist program . Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic behaviorism , and was particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner . An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War , which he saw as an act of American imperialism , in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his anti-war essay \" The Responsibility of Intellectuals \". Becoming associated with the New Left , he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon 's list of political opponents . While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the linguistics wars . In collaboration with Edward S. Herman , Chomsky later articulated the propaganda model of media criticism in Manufacturing Consent , and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor . His defense of unconditional freedom of speech , including that of Holocaust denial , generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the 1980s. Chomsky's commentary on the Cambodian genocide and the Bosnian genocide also generated controversy. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the 2003 invasion of Iraq and supporting the Occupy movement . An anti-Zionist , Chomsky considers Israel's treatment of Palestinians to be worse than South African–style apartheid , and criticizes U.S. support for Israel. Chomsky is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution in the human sciences , contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. Chomsky remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy , contemporary capitalism , U.S. involvement and Israel's role in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , and mass media . Chomsky and his ideas remain highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements. ^ Chomsky 1991 , p. 50. ^ Sperlich 2006 , pp. 44–45. ^ Slife 1993 , p. 115. ^ Barsky 1997 , p. 58. ^ Antony & Hornstein 2003 , p. 295. ^ Chomsky 2016 . ^ Harbord 1994 , p. 487. ^ Barsky 2007 , p. 107. ^ Smith 2004 , p. 185. ^ Amid the Philosophers . ^ Persson & LaFollette 2013 . ^ Prickett 2002 , p. 234. ^ Searle 1972 . ^ Adams 2003 . ^ Gould 1981 . ^ Kilpatrick, Connor (March 3, 2020). \"Kyle Kulinski Speaks, the Bernie Bros Listen\" . Archived from the original on March 5, 2020 . Retrieved February 9, 2022 . ^ Keller 2007 . ^ Swartz 2006 . ^ \"Noam Chomsky: Israel's Actions in Palestine are \"Much Worse Than Apartheid\" in South Africa\" . Democracy Now! . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "American linguist and activist (born 1928) \"Chomsky\" redirects here. For other uses, see Chomsky (disambiguation) . Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American intellectual , philosopher , linguist , political activist , and social critic . Sometimes called \"the father of modern linguistics\", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science . He is a laureate professor of linguistics at the University of Arizona and an institute professor emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Among the most cited living authors, Chomsky has written more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, and politics. In addition to his work in linguistics, since the 1960s, Chomsky has been an influential voice on the American Left as a consistent critic of the foreign policy of the United States , contemporary capitalism , and corporatocracy . Born to immigrant Ashkenazi Jews in Philadelphia , Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania . During his postgraduate work in the Harvard Society of Fellows , Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures , which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study . He created or co-created the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy , and the minimalist program . Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic behaviorism , and was particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner . An outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War , which he saw as an act of American imperialism , in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his anti-war essay \" The Responsibility of Intellectuals \". Becoming associated with the New Left , he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon 's list of political opponents . While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the linguistics wars . In collaboration with Edward S. Herman , Chomsky later articulated the propaganda model of media criticism in Manufacturing Consent , and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor . His defense of unconditional freedom of speech , including that of Holocaust denial , generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the 1980s. Chomsky's commentary on the Cambodian genocide and the Bosnian genocide also generated controversy. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the 2003 invasion of Iraq and supporting the Occupy movement . An anti-Zionist , Chomsky considers Israel's treatment of Palestinians to be worse than South African–style apartheid , and criticizes U.S. support for Israel. Chomsky is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution in the human sciences , contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. Chomsky remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy , contemporary capitalism , U.S. involvement and Israel's role in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , and mass media . Chomsky and his ideas remain highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements. ^ Chomsky 1991 , p. 50. ^ Sperlich 2006 , pp. 44–45. ^ Slife 1993 , p. 115. ^ Barsky 1997 , p. 58. ^ Antony & Hornstein 2003 , p. 295. ^ Chomsky 2016 . ^ Harbord 1994 , p. 487. ^ Barsky 2007 , p. 107. ^ Smith 2004 , p. 185. ^ Amid the Philosophers . ^ Persson & LaFollette 2013 . ^ Prickett 2002 , p. 234. ^ Searle 1972 . ^ Adams 2003 . ^ Gould 1981 . ^ Kilpatrick, Connor (March 3, 2020). \"Kyle Kulinski Speaks, the Bernie Bros Listen\" . Archived from the original on March 5, 2020 . Retrieved February 9, 2022 . ^ Keller 2007 . ^ Swartz 2006 . ^ \"Noam Chomsky: Israel's Actions in Palestine are \"Much Worse Than Apartheid\" in South Africa\" . Democracy Now! . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Passover massacre",
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   "lead_before": "2002 Hamas suicide bombing in Israel \"Netanya suicide attack\" redirects here. For the suicide attack in the Netanya market, see Netanya Market bombing . The Passover massacre was a suicide bombing carried out by Hamas at the Park Hotel in Netanya , Israel on 27 March 2002, during a Passover seder . 30 civilians were killed in the attack and 140 were injured. It was the deadliest attack against Israeli civilians during the Second Intifada , and one of the most severe suicide attacks Israel has ever experienced. ^ Sources describing the incident as the \"Passover massacre\": \"Alleged Passover massacre plotter arrested\" , CNN , 26 March 2008. Ohad Gozani, \"Hotel blast survivors relive the Passover massacre\" , The Daily Telegraph , 29 March 2002. \"This reached a peak following the Passover massacre in the seaside resort of Netanya...\" David Newman, \"The consequence or the cause? Impact on the Israel-Palestine Peace Process\", in Mary E.A. Buckley, Mary Buckley, Rick Fawn. Global Responses to Terrorism: 9/11, the War in Afghanistan, and Beyond , Routledge, 2003; ISBN 0-415-31429-1 , p. 158. \"They faced stiff resistance from Palestinian gunmen who began preparing the camp's defenses as early as the Passover massacre in Netanya...\" Todd C. Helmus, Russell W. Glenn. Steeling the Mind: Combat Stress Reactions and Their Implications for Urban Warfare Rand Corporation, 2005; ISBN 0-8330-3702-1 , p. 58. \"It can therefore be asked whether the 'human bomb' offensive starting with the Passover massacre on 27 March 2002...\" Brigitte L. Nacos, \"The Terrorist Calculus Behind 9–11: A Model for Future Terrorism?\" in Gus Martin . The New Era of Terrorism: Selected Readings , Sage Publications Inc, 2004; ISBN 0-7619-8873-4 , p. 176. ^ \"Israel seals off territories for Passover\" . BBC News . 16 April 2003 . Retrieved 11 February 2025 . ^ \"Ten years after Passover blast, survivors return to Park Hotel\" . The Times of Israel. 27 March 2012 . Retrieved 15 October 2017 . ^ Ganor 2015 , p. 111.",
   "lead_after": "2002 Hamas suicide bombing in Israel \"Netanya suicide attack\" redirects here. For the suicide attack in the Netanya market, see Netanya Market bombing . The Passover massacre was a suicide bombing carried out by Hamas at the Park Hotel in Netanya , Israel on 27 March 2002, during a Passover seder . 30 civilians were killed in the attack and 140 were injured. It was the deadliest attack against Israeli civilians during the Second Intifada , and one of the most severe suicide attacks Israel has ever experienced. ^ Sources describing the incident as the \"Passover massacre\": \"Alleged Passover massacre plotter arrested\" , CNN , 26 March 2008. Ohad Gozani, \"Hotel blast survivors relive the Passover massacre\" , The Daily Telegraph , 29 March 2002. \"This reached a peak following the Passover massacre in the seaside resort of Netanya...\" David Newman, \"The consequence or the cause? Impact on the Israel-Palestine Peace Process\", in Mary E.A. Buckley, Mary Buckley, Rick Fawn. Global Responses to Terrorism: 9/11, the War in Afghanistan, and Beyond , Routledge, 2003; ISBN 0-415-31429-1 , p. 158. \"They faced stiff resistance from Palestinian gunmen who began preparing the camp's defenses as early as the Passover massacre in Netanya...\" Todd C. Helmus, Russell W. Glenn. Steeling the Mind: Combat Stress Reactions and Their Implications for Urban Warfare Rand Corporation, 2005; ISBN 0-8330-3702-1 , p. 58. \"It can therefore be asked whether the 'human bomb' offensive starting with the Passover massacre on 27 March 2002...\" Brigitte L. Nacos, \"The Terrorist Calculus Behind 9–11: A Model for Future Terrorism?\" in Gus Martin . The New Era of Terrorism: Selected Readings , Sage Publications Inc, 2004; ISBN 0-7619-8873-4 , p. 176. ^ \"Israel seals off territories for Passover\" . BBC News . 16 April 2003 . Retrieved 11 February 2025 . ^ \"Ten years after Passover blast, survivors return to Park Hotel\" . The Times of Israel. 27 March 2012 . Retrieved 15 October 2017 . ^ Ganor 2015 , p. 111."
  },
  {
   "title": "Lod Airport massacre",
   "pageid": 373302,
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   "lead_before": "1972 terrorist attack in Tel Aviv, Israel The Lod Airport massacre was an attack that was carried out by the Japanese Red Army on the Lod Airport (now Ben Gurion International Airport) near Tel Aviv on 30 May 1972. It resulted in the killing of 26 people and the wounding of 80 others. Two of the attackers ( Tsuyoshi Okudaira and Yasuyuki Yasuda ) were killed, while a third ( Kōzō Okamoto ) was captured after being wounded. The dead comprised 17 Christian pilgrims from Puerto Rico , a Canadian citizen, and eight Israelis , including Aharon Katzir , an internationally renowned protein biophysicist . Katzir was head of the Israeli National Academy of Sciences , a popular scientific radio show host, and a likely frontrunner in the upcoming Israeli presidential election. His brother, Ephraim Katzir , was elected President of Israel the following year. Because airport security was focused on the possibility of a Palestinian attack, the use of Japanese attackers took the guards by surprise. The attack has often been described as a suicide mission, but it has also been asserted that it was the outcome of an unpublicized larger operation that went awry. The three perpetrators had been trained in Baalbek , Lebanon ; the actual planning was handled by Wadie Haddad (a.k.a. Abu Hani), head of PFLP External Operations, with some input from Okamoto. In the immediate aftermath, Der Spiegel speculated that funding had been provided by some of the $5 million ransom paid by the West German government in exchange for the hostages of hijacked Lufthansa Flight 649 in February 1972. ^ * Sloan, Stephen; Bersia, John C.; Hill, J. B. (2006). Terrorism: The Present Threat in Context . Berg Publisher. p. 50. ISBN 1-84520-344-5 . The short-term impact of the Lod Airport massacre as a precursor to Munich... \"Again the Red Army\" . TIME . 18 August 1975. Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Two years later, just before the Lod Airport massacre, authorities uncovered the bodies of 14 young men and women on remote Mount Haruna, 70 miles northwest of Tokyo. \"Lebanon Seizes Japanese Radicals Sought in Terror Attacks\" . The New York Times . 19 February 1997. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Those named by Lebanese officials as having been arrested included at least three Red Army members who have been wanted for years by Japanese authorities, most notably Kōzō Okamoto, 49, the only member of the attacking group who survived the Lod Airport massacre. ^ Simon, Jeffrey D. (7 December 2001). The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism . Indiana University Press . p. 324. ISBN 0-253-21477-7 . They were responsible for the Lod Airport massacre in Israel in 1972, which was committed on behalf of the PFLP ^ \"Fasten Your Seatbelts: Ben Gurion Airport in Israel\". The Fifth Estate . CBC News . 2007. In what became known as the Lod Airport Massacre, three members of the terrorist group, Japanese Red Army, arrived at the airport aboard Air France Flight 132 from Rome. Once inside the airport they grabbed automatic firearms from their carry-on cases and fired at airport staff and visitors. In the end, 26 people died and 80 people were injured. ^ Cite error: The named reference neojaponisme was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Weißer Kreis\" [White circle]. Der Spiegel (in German): 82– 85. 5 June 1972. Archived from the original on 21 March 2014 . Retrieved 29 August 2013 .",
   "lead_after": "1972 terrorist attack in Tel Aviv, Israel The Lod Airport massacre was an attack that was carried out by the Japanese Red Army on the Lod Airport (now Ben Gurion International Airport) near Tel Aviv on 30 May 1972. It resulted in the killing of 26 people and the wounding of 80 others. Two of the attackers ( Tsuyoshi Okudaira and Yasuyuki Yasuda [ ja ] ) were killed, while a third ( Kōzō Okamoto ) was captured after being wounded. The dead comprised 17 Christian pilgrims from Puerto Rico , a Canadian citizen, and eight Israelis , including Aharon Katzir , an internationally renowned protein biophysicist . Katzir was head of the Israeli National Academy of Sciences , a popular scientific radio show host, and a likely frontrunner in the upcoming Israeli presidential election. His brother, Ephraim Katzir , was elected President of Israel the following year. Because airport security was focused on the possibility of a Palestinian attack, the use of Japanese attackers took the guards by surprise. The attack has often been described as a suicide mission, but it has also been asserted that it was the outcome of an unpublicized larger operation that went awry. The three perpetrators had been trained in Baalbek , Lebanon ; the actual planning was handled by Wadie Haddad (a.k.a. Abu Hani), head of PFLP External Operations, with some input from Okamoto. In the immediate aftermath, Der Spiegel speculated that funding had been provided by some of the $5 million ransom paid by the West German government in exchange for the hostages of hijacked Lufthansa Flight 649 in February 1972. ^ * Sloan, Stephen; Bersia, John C.; Hill, J. B. (2006). Terrorism: The Present Threat in Context . Berg Publisher. p. 50. ISBN 1-84520-344-5 . The short-term impact of the Lod Airport massacre as a precursor to Munich... \"Again the Red Army\" . TIME . 18 August 1975. Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Two years later, just before the Lod Airport massacre, authorities uncovered the bodies of 14 young men and women on remote Mount Haruna, 70 miles northwest of Tokyo. \"Lebanon Seizes Japanese Radicals Sought in Terror Attacks\" . The New York Times . 19 February 1997. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Those named by Lebanese officials as having been arrested included at least three Red Army members who have been wanted for years by Japanese authorities, most notably Kōzō Okamoto, 49, the only member of the attacking group who survived the Lod Airport massacre. ^ Simon, Jeffrey D. (7 December 2001). The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism . Indiana University Press . p. 324. ISBN 0-253-21477-7 . They were responsible for the Lod Airport massacre in Israel in 1972, which was committed on behalf of the PFLP ^ \"Fasten Your Seatbelts: Ben Gurion Airport in Israel\". The Fifth Estate . CBC News . 2007. In what became known as the Lod Airport Massacre, three members of the terrorist group, Japanese Red Army, arrived at the airport aboard Air France Flight 132 from Rome. Once inside the airport they grabbed automatic firearms from their carry-on cases and fired at airport staff and visitors. In the end, 26 people died and 80 people were injured. ^ Cite error: The named reference neojaponisme was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Weißer Kreis\" [White circle]. Der Spiegel (in German): 82– 85. 5 June 1972. Archived from the original on 21 March 2014 . Retrieved 29 August 2013 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Mahmoud Ahmadinejad",
   "pageid": 7907317,
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   "lead_before": "President of Iran from 2005 to 2013 Mayor of Tehran In office 20 May 2003 – 28 June 2005 Preceded by Mohammad-Hossein Moghimi (acting) Succeeded by Ali Saeedlou (acting) 1st Governor General of Ardabil In office 28 November 1993 – 29 October 1997 President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani Preceded by Province created Succeeded by Seyyed Hamid Tahayi Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement In office 30 August 2012 – 3 August 2013 Preceded by Mohamed Morsi Succeeded by Hassan Rouhani Personal details Born Mahmoud Sabbaghian ( 1956-10-28 ) 28 October 1956 (age 69) Aradan , Imperial State of Iran Party Society of Devotees (1999–2011) Islamic Society of Engineers (1988–present; inactive since 2005) Dolate Bahar Other political affiliations Alliance of Builders (2003–2005) Office for Strengthening Unity (1979–1980) Spouse Azam al-Sadat Farahi ​ ​ ( m. 1980) ​ Children 3 Relatives Davoud Ahmadinejad (brother) Parvin Ahmadinejad (sister) Education Iran University of Science and Technology ( BS , PhD ) Signature Military service Allegiance Islamic Republic of Iran Army Branch/service Revolutionary Guards Years of service 1986–1988 Rank None Unit Hamzeh Headquarters Commands Combat engineering Unit, 6th Special Division Battles/wars Iran–Iraq War Operation Fath 1 Academic background Theses Study of comprehensive transportation plan in Kurdistan (1988) Assessment of subway for passengers transportation (A case study of Tehran) (1997) Doctoral advisor Hamid Behbahani Other advisors Ali Mansour Khaki Gholamreza Shirazian Jalil Shahi Academic work Discipline Civil engineering Sub-discipline Traffic engineering Institutions Iran University of Science and Technology Personal Azam al-Sadat Farahi Davoud Ahmadinejad Parvin Ahmadinejad Elections and campaigns 2003 Iranian local elections Electoral history of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 2009 Iranian presidential election The Green Scroll Campaign Axis of Unity 6th President of Iran Presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad First government of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Second government of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 2007 gasoline rationing plan in Iran 2007 Iranian petrol rationing riots Durban Review Conference International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust Foreign policy Foreign policy of the Mahmoud Ahmadinejad administration Look to the East policy Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. Bush Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Israel Controversies and factions Controversies of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Deviant current Council for Spreading Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's Thoughts Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and the 1979 hostage crisis v t e This article contains Persian text . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols . Mahmoud Ahmadinejad ( né Sabbaghian ; born 28 October 1956) is an Iranian politician who served as the sixth president of Iran from 2005 to 2013. Ideologically a principlist and nationalist , he was a member of the Expediency Discernment Council and a strong supporter of Iran's nuclear program . He was also the main political leader of the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran , a coalition of conservative political groups in the country, and served as the mayor of Tehran from 2003 to 2005, reversing many of his predecessor's reforms. An engineer and teacher from a poor family, he was ideologically shaped by thinkers such as Navvab Safavi , Jalal Al-e-Ahmad , and Ahmad Fardid . After the Iranian Revolution , Ahmadinejad joined the Office for Strengthening Unity . Appointed a provincial governor in 1993, he was replaced along with all other provincial governors in 1997 after the election of President Mohammad Khatami and returned to teaching. Tehran 's council elected him mayor in 2003. He took a religious hard line, reversing reforms of previous moderate mayors. His 2005 presidential campaign, supported by the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran , garnered 62% of the runoff election votes, and he became president on 3 August 2005. During his presidency, Ahmadinejad was a controversial figure both in Iran and worldwide. He was criticized domestically for his economic policies, and was accused of disregard for human rights by organizations in North America and Europe. Outside of Iran, he was criticized for his hostility towards Israel , Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, the United States and other Western and Arab states. In 2007, Ahmadinejad introduced a gasoline rationing plan to reduce the country's fuel consumption and cut the interest rates that private and public banking facilities could charge. His election to a second term in 2009 was widely disputed, and led to widespread protests domestically and criticism from Western countries. He repeatedly called for the destruction of Israel . He also declared the Holocaust to be a myth, later claiming that promoting Holocaust denial was one of the major achievements of his presidency. During his second term, Ahmadinejad experienced a power struggle with reformers and other traditionalists in Parliament and the Revolutionary Guard , as well as with Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei , over his dismissal of intelligence minister Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i and his support for his controversial close adviser, Esfandiar Rahim Mashaei . On 14 March 2012, Ahmadinejad became the first president of the Islamic Republic of Iran to be summoned by the Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) to answer questions regarding his presidency. Limited to two terms under the current Iranian constitution , Ahmadinejad supported Mashaei's campaign for president. In 2013, Hassan Rouhani was elected as Ahmadinejad's successor. On 12 April 2017, Ahmadinejad announced that he intended to run for a third term in the 2017 presidential election , against the objections of Supreme Leader Khamenei. His nomination was rejected by the Guardian Council . During the 2017–18 Iranian protests , Ahmadinejad criticized the current government of Iran. He made additional attempts at registering to run for the 2021 presidential election and 2024 Iranian presidential election , but his nominations were rejected. ^ \"Ex-Iranian President appointed to new post\" . Azernews.az . 5 August 2013 . Retrieved 9 July 2022 . ^ Smith, Matt (16 May 2011). \"Ahmadinejad losing ground in Iran power struggle, analysts say\" . CNN . Retrieved 3 June 2016 . ^ Milani, Abbas (3 August 2009). \"Inside The Civil War That's Threatening The Iranian Regime\" . The New Republic . Retrieved 3 June 2016 . ^ \"New Mayor of Tehran appointed\" . Hamshahri (in Persian). No. 3055. 21 May 2003. ^ داستان داوود و محمود: داوود احمدی‌نژاد چرا عليه محمود احمدی‌نژاد سخنرانی می‌كند؟ [The Story of Davoud and Mahmoud: Why is Davoud Ahmadinejad Speaking Against Mahmoud Ahmadinejad?]. Aseman Weekly (in Persian) (7). 19 November 2011. Archived from the original on 20 August 2013 . Retrieved 11 July 2016 . ^ \"Partei: Ahmadinedschad lebt noch\" [Party: Ahmadinejad still lives]. Der Spiegel (in German). DPA. 1 March 2026. ^ Peterson, Scott (2010). Let the Swords Encircle Me: Iran: A Journey Behind the Headlines . Simon and Schuster. pp. 279–280 . ISBN 978-1416597391 . ^ Ehteshami, Anoushiravan; Zweiri, Mahjoob (2007). Iran and the Rise of Its Neoconservatives: The Politics of Tehran's Silent Revolution . I.B.Tauris. p. 55. ISBN 978-0857713674 . ^ Ostovar, Afshon (2016). Vanguard of the Imam: Religion, Politics, and Iran's Revolutionary Guards . Oxford University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0190491703 . ^ \"Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud\" . VOA Pronunciation Guide . Retrieved 7 March 2026 . ^ \"Pronunciations for محمود احمدی‌نژاد (from محمود احمدی‌نژاد to احمدی‌نژاد)\" . Forvo . ^ Windfuhr, Gernot (1979). Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study . Walter de Gruyter. p. 145. ISBN 9789027977748 . Archived from the original on 28 October 2013. ... stress is word-final in simple, derived, and compound nouns and adjectives ... ^ \"Mahmoud Ahmadinejad | Biography, Politics, Education, & Facts\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 20 January 2026 . Retrieved 1 March 2026 . ^ \"Biography of H.E. Dr. Ahmadi Nejad, Honourable President of Islamic Republic of Iran\" . www.president.ir . Archived from the original on 14 November 2024 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ Mayville, Avideh (2013). \"The Religious Ideology of Reform in Iran\". In Ellens, J. Harold (ed.). Winning Revolutions: The Psychosocial Dynamics of Revolts for Freedom, Fairness, and Rights . ABC-CLIO. p. 311. ^ \"Mahmoud Ahmadinejad\" . Iran Chamber Society . Retrieved 28 July 2009 . ^ McCormick, John (3 February 2009). Comparative Politics in Transition . Cengage Learning. p. 520. ISBN 978-0-495-56852-0 . ^ Axworthy, Michael (10 March 2016). Revolutionary Iran: A History of the Islamic Republic . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-046896-5 . ^ Tait, Robert (19 June 2005). \"Hardline mayor with a humble man-of-the-people image\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Ahamd Bozorgian (MP): 'The Separation of men and women's elevators is an advantageous policy. It would help to grow.' \" . Entekhab News . Archived from the original on 14 January 2006 . Retrieved 31 August 2006 . ^ \"Ahmadinejad Sworn in as Iran's New President\" . Voice of America . 6 August 2005. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009 . Retrieved 23 December 2008 . ^ \"Iran hardliner becomes president\" . BBC . 3 August 2005 . Retrieved 6 December 2006 . ^ \"Influential Iran cleric slams Ahmadinejad on economy\" . Reuters . Retrieved 13 August 2008 . ^ Memarian, Omid (17 September 2010). \"Activists Warn of Rights Crisis Ahead of Ahmadinejad Visit\" . Inter Press Service . Retrieved 4 March 2020 . The event was organised by two New York-based rights groups, the International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran and Human Rights Watch , as well as the Nobel Women's Initiative . ^ Tait, Robert (25 May 2007). \"Iran interest rate cut sparks panic selling\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ مدیریت و\" برنامه‌ریزی منحل شد\" . Archived from the original on 17 August 2007 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Assembly of Experts to study economic reform plan: Rafsanjani\" . Tehran Times . 23 August 2008. Archived from the original on 12 September 2008 . Retrieved 23 August 2008 . ^ \"Iran clerics defy election ruling\" . BBC News . 5 July 2009 . Retrieved 18 June 2011 . ^ مجمع مدرسین و محققین حوزه قم: آیا این دولت مشروع است؟ [Qom Seminary Teachers and Researchers' Association: Is this government legitimate?]. BBC News (in Persian). 7 September 2009 . Retrieved 18 June 2011 . ^ Landry, Carole (25 June 2009). \"G8 calls on Iran to halt election violence\" . AFP . Archived from the original on 3 March 2014 . Retrieved 18 June 2011 . The West has expressed alarm over Tehran's crackdown ... The Group of Eight leading powers on Friday deplored post-election violence in Iran ... Divergences appeared when Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov warned that isolating Iran was the 'wrong approach' ... ^ \"Iran president sees 'countdown' to Israel's end\" . Reuters . 9 August 2007. ^ Charbonneau, Louis (24 September 2012). \"In New York, defiant Ahmadinejad says Israel will be 'eliminated' \" . Reuters . Retrieved 15 June 2025 . ^ \"Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad In His Own Words\" . Anti-Defamation League . 24 September 2012. ^ Arjomand, Said Amir (2009). After Khomeini: Iran under his successors . Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-539179-4 . ^ Davidovitch, Nitza; Dana, Nissim (28 February 2017). \"The Holocaust paradox: Holocaust denial and its use in the Arab world\". Israel Affairs . 23 (2): 411– 426. doi : 10.1080/13537121.2016.1274507 . ISSN 1353-7121 . S2CID 151730193 . \"Ahmadinejad says Holocaust denial was his major achievement\" . Times of Israel . Jewish Telegraph Agency . 8 July 2013 . Retrieved 3 September 2018 . Winograd, Zoe (9 July 2013). \"Ahmadinejad: my main achievement was Holocaust denial\" . The Jewish Chronicle . Retrieved 3 September 2018 . Rubin, Michael (19 January 2015). \"Iran to Host Holocaust Cartoon Contest\" . Commentary Magazine . Archived from the original on 4 September 2018 . Retrieved 3 September 2018 . ^ Erdbrink, Thomas (3 April 2013). \"Power Struggle Is Gripping Iran Ahead of June Election\" . New York Times . Retrieved 4 April 2013 . It is all part of a power struggle ahead of the June election between Mr. Ahmadinejad's faction and a coalition of traditionalists, including many Revolutionary Guards commanders and hard-line clerics. ^ Cite error: The named reference rift was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference accept was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Iran's president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad summoned to parliament\" . The Guardian . 14 March 2012 . Retrieved 18 December 2012 . ^ \"Ahmadinejad critic Larijani re-elected Iran speaker\" . BBC News . 5 June 2012 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Hard-Line Ex-Leader Ahmadinejad Stuns Iran With Election Bid\" . The New York Times . 12 April 2017. ^ \"Ahmadinejad 'disqualified' from running in Iran poll\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Iran's Ahmadinejad disqualified from running for president\" . Euronews . 20 April 2017 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Iran's hard-line former President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad registers for June 28 presidential election\" . AP News . 2 June 2024. ^ Motamedi, Maziar. \"Iran approves 7 for presidential vote; bars reformists\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 26 July 2021 . ^ \"Iran announces six candidates approved for June 28 presidential election\" . France 24 . 9 June 2024 . Retrieved 10 June 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "President of Iran from 2005 to 2013 Mayor of Tehran In office 20 May 2003 – 28 June 2005 Preceded by Mohammad-Hossein Moghimi (acting) Succeeded by Ali Saeedlou (acting) 1st Governor General of Ardabil In office 28 November 1993 – 29 October 1997 President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani Preceded by Province created Succeeded by Seyyed Hamid Tahayi Member of the Expediency Discernment Council Incumbent Assumed office 3 August 2013 Appointed by Ali Khamenei Chairman Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani Ali Movahedi-Kermani (acting) Mahmoud Hashemi Shahroudi Sadeq Larijani Preceded by Hassan Rouhani Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement In office 30 August 2012 – 3 August 2013 Preceded by Mohamed Morsi Succeeded by Hassan Rouhani Personal details Born Mahmoud Sabbaghian ( 1956-10-28 ) 28 October 1956 (age 69) Aradan , Imperial State of Iran Party Society of Devotees (1999–2011) Islamic Society of Engineers (1988–present; inactive since 2005) Dolate Bahar Other political affiliations Alliance of Builders (2003–2005) Office for Strengthening Unity (1979–1980) Spouse Azam al-Sadat Farahi ​ ​ ( m. 1980) ​ Children 3 Relatives Davoud Ahmadinejad (brother) Parvin Ahmadinejad (sister) Education Iran University of Science and Technology ( BS , PhD ) Signature Military service Allegiance Islamic Republic of Iran Army Branch/service Revolutionary Guards Years of service 1986–1988 Rank None Unit Hamzeh Headquarters Commands Combat engineering Unit, 6th Special Division Battles/wars Iran–Iraq War Operation Fath 1 Academic background Theses Study of comprehensive transportation plan in Kurdistan (1988) Assessment of subway for passengers transportation (A case study of Tehran) (1997) Doctoral advisor Hamid Behbahani Other advisors Ali Mansour Khaki Gholamreza Shirazian Jalil Shahi Academic work Discipline Civil engineering Sub-discipline Traffic engineering Institutions Iran University of Science and Technology Personal Azam al-Sadat Farahi Davoud Ahmadinejad Parvin Ahmadinejad Elections and campaigns 2003 Iranian local elections Electoral history of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 2009 Iranian presidential election The Green Scroll Campaign Axis of Unity 6th President of Iran Presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad First government of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Second government of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad 2007 gasoline rationing plan in Iran 2007 Iranian petrol rationing riots Durban Review Conference International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust Foreign policy Foreign policy of the Mahmoud Ahmadinejad administration Look to the East policy Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to George W. Bush Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Israel Controversies and factions Controversies of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Deviant current Council for Spreading Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's Thoughts Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and the 1979 hostage crisis v t e This article contains Persian text . Without proper rendering support , you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols . Mahmoud Ahmadinejad ( né Sabbaghian ; born 28 October 1956) is an Iranian politician who served as the sixth president of Iran from 2005 to 2013. Ideologically a principlist and nationalist , he was a member of the Expediency Discernment Council and a strong proponent of Iran's nuclear program . He was also the main political leader of the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran , a coalition of conservative political groups in the country, and served as the mayor of Tehran from 2003 to 2005, reversing many of his predecessor's reforms. An engineer and teacher from a poor family, he was ideologically shaped by thinkers such as Navvab Safavi , Jalal Al-e-Ahmad , and Ahmad Fardid . After the Iranian Revolution , Ahmadinejad joined the Office for Strengthening Unity . Appointed a provincial governor in 1993, he was replaced along with all other provincial governors in 1997 after the election of President Mohammad Khatami and returned to teaching. Tehran 's council elected him mayor in 2003. He took a religious hard line, reversing reforms of previous moderate mayors. His 2005 presidential campaign, supported by the Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran , garnered 62% of the runoff election votes, and he became president on 3 August 2005. During his presidency, Ahmadinejad was a controversial figure both in Iran and worldwide. He was criticized domestically for his economic policies, and was accused of disregard for human rights by organizations in North America and Europe. Outside of Iran, he was criticized for his hostility towards Israel , Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, the United States and other Western and Arab states. In 2007, Ahmadinejad introduced a gasoline rationing plan to reduce the country's fuel consumption and cut the interest rates that private and public banking facilities could charge. His election to a second term in 2009 was widely disputed, and led to widespread protests domestically and criticism from Western countries. He repeatedly called for the destruction of Israel . He also declared the Holocaust to be a myth, later claiming that promoting Holocaust denial was one of the major achievements of his presidency. During his second term, Ahmadinejad experienced a power struggle with reformers and other traditionalists in Parliament and the Revolutionary Guard , as well as with Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei , over his dismissal of intelligence minister Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i and his support for his controversial close adviser, Esfandiar Rahim Mashaei . On 14 March 2012, Ahmadinejad became the first president of the Islamic Republic of Iran to be summoned by the Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) to answer questions regarding his presidency. Limited to two terms under the current Iranian constitution , Ahmadinejad supported Mashaei's campaign for president. In 2013, Hassan Rouhani was elected as Ahmadinejad's successor. On 12 April 2017, Ahmadinejad announced that he intended to run for a third term in the 2017 presidential election , against the objections of Supreme Leader Khamenei. His nomination was rejected by the Guardian Council . During the 2017–18 Iranian protests , Ahmadinejad criticized the current government of Iran. He made additional attempts at registering to run for the 2021 presidential election and 2024 Iranian presidential election , but his nominations were rejected. In July 2026, it was reported that the Central Intelligence Agency and Mossad initially planned to re-install Ahmadinejad as Iranian president as part of regime change Operations Epic Fury and Roaring Lion , which has since fallen through. ^ Smith, Matt (16 May 2011). \"Ahmadinejad losing ground in Iran power struggle, analysts say\" . CNN . Retrieved 3 June 2016 . ^ Milani, Abbas (3 August 2009). \"Inside The Civil War That's Threatening The Iranian Regime\" . The New Republic . Retrieved 3 June 2016 . ^ \"New Mayor of Tehran appointed\" . Hamshahri (in Persian). No. 3055. 21 May 2003. ^ \"Ex-Iranian President appointed to new post\" . Azernews.az . 5 August 2013 . Retrieved 9 July 2022 . ^ داستان داوود و محمود: داوود احمدی‌نژاد چرا عليه محمود احمدی‌نژاد سخنرانی می‌كند؟ [The Story of Davoud and Mahmoud: Why is Davoud Ahmadinejad Speaking Against Mahmoud Ahmadinejad?]. Aseman Weekly (in Persian) (7). 19 November 2011. Archived from the original on 20 August 2013 . Retrieved 11 July 2016 . ^ \"Partei: Ahmadinedschad lebt noch\" [Party: Ahmadinejad still lives]. Der Spiegel (in German). DPA. 1 March 2026. ^ Peterson, Scott (2010). Let the Swords Encircle Me: Iran: A Journey Behind the Headlines . Simon and Schuster. pp. 279–280 . ISBN 978-1416597391 . ^ Ehteshami, Anoushiravan; Zweiri, Mahjoob (2007). Iran and the Rise of Its Neoconservatives: The Politics of Tehran's Silent Revolution . I.B.Tauris. p. 55. ISBN 978-0857713674 . ^ Ostovar, Afshon (2016). Vanguard of the Imam: Religion, Politics, and Iran's Revolutionary Guards . Oxford University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0190491703 . ^ \"Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud\" . VOA Pronunciation Guide . Retrieved 7 March 2026 . ^ \"Pronunciations for محمود احمدی‌نژاد (from محمود احمدی‌نژاد to احمدی‌نژاد)\" . Forvo . ^ Windfuhr, Gernot (1979). Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study . Walter de Gruyter. p. 145. ISBN 9789027977748 . Archived from the original on 28 October 2013. ... stress is word-final in simple, derived, and compound nouns and adjectives ... ^ \"Mahmoud Ahmadinejad | Biography, Politics, Education, & Facts\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 20 January 2026 . Retrieved 1 March 2026 . ^ \"Biography of H.E. Dr. Ahmadi Nejad, Honourable President of Islamic Republic of Iran\" . www.president.ir . Archived from the original on 14 November 2024 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ Mayville, Avideh (2013). \"The Religious Ideology of Reform in Iran\". In Ellens, J. Harold (ed.). Winning Revolutions: The Psychosocial Dynamics of Revolts for Freedom, Fairness, and Rights . ABC-CLIO. p. 311. ^ \"Mahmoud Ahmadinejad\" . Iran Chamber Society . Retrieved 28 July 2009 . ^ McCormick, John (3 February 2009). Comparative Politics in Transition . Cengage Learning. p. 520. ISBN 978-0-495-56852-0 . ^ Axworthy, Michael (10 March 2016). Revolutionary Iran: A History of the Islamic Republic . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-046896-5 . ^ Tait, Robert (19 June 2005). \"Hardline mayor with a humble man-of-the-people image\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Ahamd Bozorgian (MP): 'The Separation of men and women's elevators is an advantageous policy. It would help to grow.' \" . Entekhab News . Archived from the original on 14 January 2006 . Retrieved 31 August 2006 . ^ \"Ahmadinejad Sworn in as Iran's New President\" . Voice of America . 6 August 2005. Archived from the original on 29 January 2009 . Retrieved 23 December 2008 . ^ \"Iran hardliner becomes president\" . BBC . 3 August 2005 . Retrieved 6 December 2006 . ^ \"Influential Iran cleric slams Ahmadinejad on economy\" . Reuters . Retrieved 13 August 2008 . ^ Memarian, Omid (17 September 2010). \"Activists Warn of Rights Crisis Ahead of Ahmadinejad Visit\" . Inter Press Service . Retrieved 4 March 2020 . The event was organised by two New York-based rights groups, the International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran and Human Rights Watch , as well as the Nobel Women's Initiative . ^ Tait, Robert (25 May 2007). \"Iran interest rate cut sparks panic selling\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ مدیریت و\" برنامه‌ریزی منحل شد\" . Archived from the original on 17 August 2007 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Assembly of Experts to study economic reform plan: Rafsanjani\" . Tehran Times . 23 August 2008. Archived from the original on 12 September 2008 . Retrieved 23 August 2008 . ^ \"Iran clerics defy election ruling\" . BBC News . 5 July 2009 . Retrieved 18 June 2011 . ^ مجمع مدرسین و محققین حوزه قم: آیا این دولت مشروع است؟ [Qom Seminary Teachers and Researchers' Association: Is this government legitimate?]. BBC News (in Persian). 7 September 2009 . Retrieved 18 June 2011 . ^ Landry, Carole (25 June 2009). \"G8 calls on Iran to halt election violence\" . AFP . Archived from the original on 3 March 2014 . Retrieved 18 June 2011 . The West has expressed alarm over Tehran's crackdown ... The Group of Eight leading powers on Friday deplored post-election violence in Iran ... Divergences appeared when Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov warned that isolating Iran was the 'wrong approach' ... ^ \"Iran president sees 'countdown' to Israel's end\" . Reuters . 9 August 2007. ^ Charbonneau, Louis (24 September 2012). \"In New York, defiant Ahmadinejad says Israel will be 'eliminated' \" . Reuters . Retrieved 15 June 2025 . ^ \"Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad In His Own Words\" . Anti-Defamation League . 24 September 2012. ^ Arjomand, Said Amir (2009). After Khomeini: Iran under his successors . Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-539179-4 . ^ Davidovitch, Nitza; Dana, Nissim (28 February 2017). \"The Holocaust paradox: Holocaust denial and its use in the Arab world\". Israel Affairs . 23 (2): 411– 426. doi : 10.1080/13537121.2016.1274507 . ISSN 1353-7121 . S2CID 151730193 . \"Ahmadinejad says Holocaust denial was his major achievement\" . Times of Israel . Jewish Telegraph Agency . 8 July 2013 . Retrieved 3 September 2018 . Winograd, Zoe (9 July 2013). \"Ahmadinejad: my main achievement was Holocaust denial\" . The Jewish Chronicle . Retrieved 3 September 2018 . Rubin, Michael (19 January 2015). \"Iran to Host Holocaust Cartoon Contest\" . Commentary Magazine . Archived from the original on 4 September 2018 . Retrieved 3 September 2018 . ^ Erdbrink, Thomas (3 April 2013). \"Power Struggle Is Gripping Iran Ahead of June Election\" . New York Times . Retrieved 4 April 2013 . It is all part of a power struggle ahead of the June election between Mr. Ahmadinejad's faction and a coalition of traditionalists, including many Revolutionary Guards commanders and hard-line clerics. ^ Cite error: The named reference rift was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference accept was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Iran's president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad summoned to parliament\" . The Guardian . 14 March 2012 . Retrieved 18 December 2012 . ^ \"Ahmadinejad critic Larijani re-elected Iran speaker\" . BBC News . 5 June 2012 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Hard-Line Ex-Leader Ahmadinejad Stuns Iran With Election Bid\" . The New York Times . 12 April 2017. ^ \"Ahmadinejad 'disqualified' from running in Iran poll\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Iran's Ahmadinejad disqualified from running for president\" . Euronews . 20 April 2017 . Retrieved 17 May 2025 . ^ \"Iran's hard-line former President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad registers for June 28 presidential election\" . AP News . 2 June 2024. ^ Motamedi, Maziar. \"Iran approves 7 for presidential vote; bars reformists\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 26 July 2021 . ^ \"Iran announces six candidates approved for June 28 presidential election\" . France 24 . 9 June 2024 . Retrieved 10 June 2024 . ^ Mazzetti, Mark; Barnes, Julian E.; Fassihi, Farnaz; Bergman, Ronen (13 July 2026). \"Inside Israel's Secret Operation to Install Ahmadinejad, Iran's Former President, as Leader\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 14 July 2026 . ^ Tov, Michael Hauser (13 July 2026). \"Inside the Mossad Plot to Install Israel's Arch-enemy Ahmadinejad as Iran's Leader\" . Haaretz . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Rashid Khalidi",
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   "lead_before": "Palestinian-American historian (born 1948) Rashid Ismail Khalidi ( Arabic : رشيد خالدي ; born November 18, 1948) is a Palestinian-American historian of the Middle East and the Edward Said Professor Emeritus of Modern Arab Studies at Columbia University . He served as editor of the Journal of Palestine Studies from 2002 until 2020, when he became co-editor with Sherene Seikaly. He has authored a number of books, including The Hundred Years' War on Palestine and Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness ; has served as president of the Middle East Studies Association ; and has taught at the Lebanese University , the American University of Beirut , Georgetown University , and the University of Chicago . Khalidi retired from Columbia University on October 8, 2024. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Khalidi, Rashid I. 1948- (Rashid Ismail Khalidi)\" . www.encyclopedia.com . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ \"Department of History: Rashid Khalidi\" . Columbia University. Archived from the original on August 1, 2017 . Retrieved December 30, 2016 . ^ \"Khalidi, Rashid\" . Department of History - Columbia University . September 2, 2016 . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ Khalidi, Rashid I. (2021). \"The Journal of Palestine Studies in the Twenty-First Century: An Editor's Reflections\" . Institute for Palestine Studies . 50 (3): 5– 17. doi : 10.1080/0377919X.2021.1933101 . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Iqbal was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian-American historian (born 1948) Rashid Ismail Khalidi ( Arabic : رشيد خالدي ; born November 18, 1948) is a Palestinian-American historian of the Middle East and the Edward Said Professor Emeritus of Modern Arab Studies at Columbia University . He served as editor of the Journal of Palestine Studies from 2002 until 2020, when he became co-editor with Sherene Seikaly. He has authored a number of books, including The Hundred Years' War on Palestine and Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness ; has served as president of the Middle East Studies Association ; and has taught at the Lebanese University , the American University of Beirut , Georgetown University , and the University of Chicago . Khalidi retired from Columbia University on October 8, 2024. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Khalidi, Rashid I. 1948- (Rashid Ismail Khalidi)\" . www.encyclopedia.com . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ \"Department of History: Rashid Khalidi\" . Columbia University. Archived from the original on August 1, 2017 . Retrieved December 30, 2016 . ^ \"Khalidi, Rashid\" . Department of History - Columbia University . September 2, 2016 . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ Khalidi, Rashid I. (2021). \"The Journal of Palestine Studies in the Twenty-First Century: An Editor's Reflections\" . Institute for Palestine Studies . 50 (3): 5– 17. doi : 10.1080/0377919X.2021.1933101 . Retrieved May 28, 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Iqbal was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Edward Said",
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   "lead_before": "Palestinian-American academic (1935–2003) Edward Wadie Said (1 November 1935 – 24 September 2003) was a Palestinian and American academic, literary critic, and political activist. As a professor of literature at Columbia University , he was among the founders of post-colonial studies . As a cultural critic , Said is best known for his book Orientalism (1978), a foundational text which critiques the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism —how the Western world perceives the Orient . His model of textual analysis transformed the academic discourse of researchers in literary theory, literary criticism, and Middle Eastern studies . Born in Jerusalem , Mandatory Palestine , in 1935, Said was a United States citizen by way of his father, who had served in the United States Army during World War I . After the 1948 Palestine war , he relocated the family to Egypt, where they had previously lived, and then to the United States. Said enrolled at the secondary school Victoria College while in Egypt and Northfield Mount Hermon School after arriving in the United States. He graduated from Princeton University in 1957 and received a doctorate in English literature from Harvard University in 1964. His principal influences were Antonio Gramsci , Frantz Fanon , Aimé Césaire , Michel Foucault , and Theodor W. Adorno . In 1963, Said joined Columbia University as a member of the English and Comparative Literature faculties, where he taught and worked until 2003. He lectured at more than 200 other universities in North America, Europe, and the Middle East. As a public intellectual, Said was a member of the Palestinian National Council supporting a two-state solution that incorporated the Palestinian right of return , before resigning in 1993 due to his criticism of the Oslo Accords . He advocated for the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure political and humanitarian equality in the Israeli-occupied territories , where Palestinians have witnessed the increased expansion of Israeli settlements . However, in 1999, he argued that sustainable peace was only possible with one Israeli–Palestinian state . He defined his oppositional relation with the Israeli status quo as the remit of the public intellectual who has \"to sift, to judge, to criticize, to choose, so that choice and agency return to the individual\". Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Edward Said\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 16 February 2023 . Retrieved 31 July 2023 . ^ Robert Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West , New York & London: Routledge, 1990. ^ Ferial Jabouri Ghazoul, ed. (2007). Edward Saïd and Critical Decolonization . American University in Cairo Press. pp. 290–. ISBN 978-977-416-087-5 . Retrieved 19 November 2011 . Edward W. Saïd (1935–2003) was one of the most influential intellectuals in the twentieth century. ^ Zamir, Shamoon (2005), \"Saïd, Edward W.\", in Jones, Lindsay (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition , vol. 12, Macmillan Reference USA, Thomas Gale, pp. 8031– 32, Edward W. Saïd (1935–2003) is best known as the author of the influential and widely-read Orientalism (1978) ... His forceful defense of secular humanism and of the public role of the intellectual, as much as his trenchant critiques of Orientalism, and his unwavering advocacy of the Palestinian cause, made Saïd one of the most internationally influential cultural commentators writing out of the United States in the last quarter of the twentieth century. ^ Gentz, Joachim (2009). \"Orientalism/Occidentalism\" . Keywords re-oriented . interKULTUR, European-Chinese intercultural studies, Volume IV. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-3-940344-86-1 . Retrieved 18 November 2011 . Edward Saïd's influential Orientalism (1979) effectively created a discursive field in cultural studies , stimulating fresh critical analysis of Western academic work on \"The Orient\". Although the book, itself, has been criticized from many angles, it is still considered to be the seminal work to the field. ^ Richard T. Gray; Ruth V. Gross; Rolf J. Goebel; Clayton Koelb, eds. (2005). A Franz Kafka encyclopedia . Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 212–. ISBN 978-0-313-30375-3 . Retrieved 18 November 2011 . In its current usage, Orient is a key term of cultural critique that derives from Edward W. Saïd's influential book Orientalism . ^ Stephen Howe, \"Dangerous mind?\" , New Humanist , Vol. 123, November/December 2008. ^ \"Between Worlds\", Reflections on Exile, and Other Essays (2002) pp. 561, 565. ^ Sherry, Mark (2010). \"Said, Edward Wadie\" . In John R. Shook (ed.). Said, Edward Wadie (1935–2003) . The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers . Oxford: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-19-975466-3 . ^ Ian Buchanan, ed. (2010). \"Said, Edward\" . A Dictionary of Critical Theory . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953291-9 . ^ Cite error: The named reference dfgw was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference nyt was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Andrew N. Rubin, \"Edward W. Said\" , Arab Studies Quarterly , Fall 2004: p. 1. Retrieved 5 January 2010. ^ Said, Edward (10 January 1999). \"The One-State Solution\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 27 December 2023 . Given the collapse of the Netanyahu Government over the Wye peace agreement , it is time to question whether the entire process begun in Oslo in 1993 is the right instrument for bringing peace between Palestinians and Israelis. It is my view that the peace process has in fact put off the real reconciliation that must occur if the hundred-year war between Zionism and the Palestinian people is to end. Oslo set the stage for separation, but real peace can come only with a binational Israeli–Palestinian state .",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian-American academic (1935–2003) Edward Wadie Said (1 November 1935 – 24 September 2003) was a Palestinian and American academic, literary critic, and political activist. As a professor of literature at Columbia University , he was among the founders of post-colonial studies . As a cultural critic , Said is best known for his book Orientalism (1978), a foundational text which critiques the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism —how the Western world perceives the Orient . His model of textual analysis transformed the academic discourse of researchers in literary theory, literary criticism, and Middle Eastern studies . Born in Jerusalem , Mandatory Palestine , in 1935, Said was a United States citizen by way of his father, who had served in the United States Army during World War I . After the 1948 Palestine war , he relocated the family to Egypt, where they had previously lived, and then to the United States. Said enrolled at the secondary school Victoria College while in Egypt and Northfield Mount Hermon School after arriving in the United States. He graduated from Princeton University in 1957 and received a doctorate in English literature from Harvard University in 1964. His principal influences were Antonio Gramsci , Frantz Fanon , Aimé Césaire , Michel Foucault , and Theodor W. Adorno . In 1963, Said joined Columbia University as a member of the English and Comparative Literature faculties, where he taught and worked until 2003. He lectured at more than 200 other universities in North America, Europe, and the Middle East. As a public intellectual, Said was a member of the Palestinian National Council supporting a two-state solution that incorporated the Palestinian right of return , before resigning in 1993 due to his criticism of the Oslo Accords . He advocated for the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure political and humanitarian equality in the Israeli-occupied territories , where Palestinians have witnessed the increased expansion of Israeli settlements . However, in 1999, he argued that sustainable peace was only possible with one Israeli–Palestinian state . He defined his oppositional relation with the Israeli status quo as the remit of the public intellectual who has \"to sift, to judge, to criticize, to choose, so that choice and agency return to the individual\". Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ \"Edward Said\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 16 February 2023 . Retrieved 31 July 2023 . ^ Robert Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West , New York & London: Routledge, 1990. ^ Ferial Jabouri Ghazoul, ed. (2007). Edward Saïd and Critical Decolonization . American University in Cairo Press. pp. 290–. ISBN 978-977-416-087-5 . Retrieved 19 November 2011 . Edward W. Saïd (1935–2003) was one of the most influential intellectuals in the twentieth century. ^ Zamir, Shamoon (2005), \"Saïd, Edward W.\", in Jones, Lindsay (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition , vol. 12, Macmillan Reference USA, Thomas Gale, pp. 8031– 32, Edward W. Saïd (1935–2003) is best known as the author of the influential and widely-read Orientalism (1978) ... His forceful defense of secular humanism and of the public role of the intellectual, as much as his trenchant critiques of Orientalism, and his unwavering advocacy of the Palestinian cause, made Saïd one of the most internationally influential cultural commentators writing out of the United States in the last quarter of the twentieth century. ^ Gentz, Joachim (2009). \"Orientalism/Occidentalism\" . Keywords re-oriented . interKULTUR, European-Chinese intercultural studies, Volume IV. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-3-940344-86-1 . Retrieved 18 November 2011 . Edward Saïd's influential Orientalism (1979) effectively created a discursive field in cultural studies , stimulating fresh critical analysis of Western academic work on \"The Orient\". Although the book, itself, has been criticized from many angles, it is still considered to be the seminal work to the field. ^ Richard T. Gray; Ruth V. Gross; Rolf J. Goebel; Clayton Koelb, eds. (2005). A Franz Kafka encyclopedia . Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 212–. ISBN 978-0-313-30375-3 . Retrieved 18 November 2011 . In its current usage, Orient is a key term of cultural critique that derives from Edward W. Saïd's influential book Orientalism . ^ Stephen Howe, \"Dangerous mind?\" , New Humanist , Vol. 123, November/December 2008. ^ \"Between Worlds\", Reflections on Exile, and Other Essays (2002) pp. 561, 565. ^ Sherry, Mark (2010). \"Said, Edward Wadie\" . In John R. Shook (ed.). Said, Edward Wadie (1935–2003) . The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers . Oxford: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-19-975466-3 . ^ Ian Buchanan, ed. (2010). \"Said, Edward\" . A Dictionary of Critical Theory . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953291-9 . ^ Cite error: The named reference dfgw was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference nyt was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Andrew N. Rubin, \"Edward W. Said\" , Arab Studies Quarterly , Fall 2004: p. 1. Retrieved 5 January 2010. ^ Said, Edward (10 January 1999). \"The One-State Solution\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 27 December 2023 . Given the collapse of the Netanyahu Government over the Wye peace agreement , it is time to question whether the entire process begun in Oslo in 1993 is the right instrument for bringing peace between Palestinians and Israelis. It is my view that the peace process has in fact put off the real reconciliation that must occur if the hundred-year war between Zionism and the Palestinian people is to end. Oslo set the stage for separation, but real peace can come only with a binational Israeli–Palestinian state ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Muslim Brotherhood",
   "pageid": 20742,
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muslim_Brotherhood&oldid=1361427766",
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   "lead_before": "Transnational Sunni Islamist organization The Society of the Muslim Brothers ( Arabic : جماعة الإخوان المسلمين , romanized : Jamāʿat al-Ikhwān al-Muslimīn ), better known as the Muslim Brotherhood ( الإخوان المسلمون , al-Ikhwān al-Muslimūn ) , is a transnational Sunni Islamist organization founded in Egypt by Islamic scholar , imam and schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna in 1928. Al-Banna's teachings spread far beyond Egypt, influencing various Islamist movements from charitable organizations to political parties. Initially, as a pan-Islamist , religious, and social movement , its members preached Islam in Egypt , taught the illiterate , and set up hospitals and business enterprises. The group later advanced into the political arena , aiming to end British colonial rule in Egypt . The movement's self-stated aim is the establishment of a state ruled by Sharia under a caliphate , with one of its most well-known slogans being \"Islam is the solution\". The group combines political activism with Islamic charity work. The group spread to other Muslim countries but still has one of its largest organizations in Egypt, despite a succession of government crackdowns since 1948. It remained a fringe group in the politics of the Arab world until the 1967 Six-Day War , when Islamism replaced popular secular Arab nationalism after a resounding Arab defeat by the State of Israel . The movement was also supported by Saudi Arabia , with which it shared mutual enemies like communism . The Arab Spring initially brought the group legalization and substantial political power, but that expansion had suffered reversals by 2013. The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood was legalized in 2011 and won several elections, including the 2012 Egyptian presidential election , in which its candidate, Mohamed Morsi , became Egypt's first democratically elected president. Following massive demonstrations and unrest , Morsi was overthrown in the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état orchestrated by the military and placed under house arrest; a later review found that the Muslim Brotherhood had failed to moderate its views or embrace democratic values during its time in power. The group was then banned in Egypt and declared a terrorist organization. The Persian Gulf monarchies of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates followed suit. The group's founder accepted the utility of political violence , and members of the Brotherhood conducted assassinations and attempted assassinations on Egyptian state figures during his lifetime, including Egyptian prime minister Mahmoud El Nokrashy Pasha in 1948. In his 1964 book Milestones ( معالم في الطريق , Maʿālim fī aṭ-Ṭarīq ), Sayyid Qutb , one of the group's most prominent thinkers, promoted takfirism , a doctrine permitting \"the stigmatisation of other Muslims as infidel or apostate , and of existing states as un-Islamic, and the use of extreme violence in the pursuit of the perfect Islamic society\"; the doctrine continues to inspire many jihadist movements . The group abandoned the use of violence in the 1970s. However, Hamas , a Palestinian militant group that controls the Gaza Strip , is an offshoot of the Brotherhood that continues to use violence. The Muslim Brotherhood does not have a clear ideological platform on violence. In recent years, the primary state backers of the Muslim Brotherhood have been Qatar and AKP -ruled Turkey . As of 2026 , the flagship group or specific chapters are considered a terrorist organization by the governments of Argentina , Kenya , Germany , Bahrain , Egypt , Russia , Saudi Arabia , the United Arab Emirates , and the United States . ^ Ghattas, Kim (9 February 2001). \"Profile: Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood\" . BBC. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ Al Jazeera Staff (18 June 2017). \"What is the Muslim Brotherhood?\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 9 September 2023 . Retrieved 3 July 2021 . ^ \"Brotherhood Organizational Coups: Qutbism of Thought and Pragmatism of Politics\" . 30 June 2022. Archived from the original on 29 January 2024 . Retrieved 29 January 2024 . ^ \"The Muslim Brotherhood's Ties to Extremists\" . Archived from the original on 29 January 2024 . Retrieved 29 January 2024 . ^ ^ El-Sherif, Ashraf (21 October 2014). \"The Muslim Brotherhood and the Future of Political Islam in Egypt\" . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . Archived from the original on 2 May 2023 . Retrieved 14 September 2017 . ^ Gould, J. J. (30 June 2013). \"Rick Perry and the Muslim Brotherhood: Compare and Contrast – Mona Eltahawy on social conservatism in Egypt and the U.S.\" The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023 . Retrieved 14 September 2017 . ^ Strindberg, Anders; Wärn, Mats (2011), Islamism , Polity, p. 87, ISBN 978-0745640624 ^ Chatterjee, Choi (2018). \"10: Islamic Fundamentalism in Critical Perspective\". The 20th Century: A Retrospective . New York: Routledge. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-8133-2691-7 . ^ K. Gani, Jasmine (21 October 2022). \"Anti-colonial connectivity between Islamicate movements in the Middle East and South Asia: the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamati Islam\" . Post Colonial Studies . 26 . Routledge: 55– 76. doi : 10.1080/13688790.2023.2127660 . hdl : 10023/26238 . ISSN 1368-8790 . S2CID 253068552 . ^ ^ Johnson, Ian (5 February 2011). \"Washington's Secret History with the Muslim Brotherhood\" . The New York Review of Books . Archived from the original on 24 December 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2016 . ^ Sageman, Marc (2004). \"Chapter 1: The Origins of the Jihad\". Understanding Terror Networks . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-8122-3808-7 . ^ Lenz-Raymann, Kathrin (2014). \"Chapter 3: Salafi Isalm: Social Transformation and Political Islam\". Securitization of Islam: A Vicious Circle: Counter-Terrorism and Freedom of Religion in Central Asia . United Kingdom: Transcript Verlag. p. 80. ISBN 978-3837629040 . JSTOR j.ctv1fxgjp.7 . ^ ^ R. Halverson, Jeffrey (2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam . New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 62, 65. ISBN 978-0-230-10279-8 . Neo-Sufism assumed the basis of a secondary Athari tendency that we find in the thought of Hasan al-Banna and the Muslim Brotherhood... Neo-Sufism... was a major influence on the thought of Hasan al-Banna and the development of the Muslim Brotherhood.. ^ Youssef, Bassem (1 May 2013). \"The Muslim Brotherhood's 'right-wing' politics game\" . Al Arabiya English . Archived from the original on 19 October 2017 . Retrieved 15 September 2017 . ^ Dreyfuss, Robert (11 February 2011). \"What Is the Muslim Brotherhood, and Will It Take Over Egypt?\" . Mother Jones . Archived from the original on 4 August 2020 . Retrieved 9 July 2018 . ^ ^ \"Iran and Muslim Brotherhood: A Bizarre Alliance of Two Rival Ideologies\" . Archived from the original on 6 November 2022 . Retrieved 5 November 2023 . ^ \"Why Turkey Chose Qatar\" . 25 June 2017. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023 . Retrieved 26 November 2022 . ^ \"عن بنا | وكالة أنباء البحرين\" . Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 . Retrieved 4 May 2014 . ^ \"Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood declared 'terrorist group' \" . BBC News . 25 December 2013. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ \"Muslim Brotherhood Gangs (Egypt)\" . Pro-Government Militia. Archived from the original on 26 November 2022 . Retrieved 8 April 2023 . ^ \"Kenya declares Muslim Brotherhood, Hizb-ur-Tahrir as terror entities\" . Citizen Digital . 22 September 2025 . Retrieved 30 September 2025 . ^ \"Постановление ГД ФС РФ от 12.02.2003 N 3624-III ГД \"О Заявлении Государственной Думы Федерального Собрания Российской Федерации \"О пресечении деятельности террористических организаций на территории Российской Федерации\" \" [Resolution of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of February 12, 2003 N 3624-III of the State Duma \"On the Statement of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation \"On the suppression of the activities of terrorist organizations on the territory of the Russian Federation\"] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. ^ \"Saudi Arabia declares Muslim Brotherhood 'terrorist group' \" . BBC News . 7 March 2014. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ \"Assad says 'factors not in place' for Syria peace talks – World News\" . 22 October 2013. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . ^ \"U.A.E. Supports Saudi Arabia Against Qatar-Backed Brotherhood\" . Bloomberg.com . 9 March 2014. Archived from the original on 10 March 2014 . Retrieved 10 March 2017 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kevin Borgeson; Robin Valeri (9 July 2009). Terrorism in America . Jones and Bartlett Learning. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7637-5524-9 . Retrieved 9 December 2012 . ^ \"Is the Muslim Brotherhood a Terrorist Group?\" . The New York Times . 30 April 2019. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022 . Retrieved 15 May 2019 . ^ Jenkins, John (2015). Muslim Brotherhood Review: Main Findings . London: British Parliament . p. 1. ISBN 9781474127127 . Hassan al Banna, called for the religious reformation of individual Muslims, the progressive moral purification of Muslim societies and their eventual political unification in a Caliphate under sharia law. ^ \"Muslim Brotherhood and Jama'at-i Islami\" . Pew Research Center . 15 September 2010 . Retrieved 26 February 2026 . ^ Rutherford, Bruce (2008). Egypt After Mubarak . Princeton University Press. p. 99. ^ \"The end of Nasserism: How the 1967 War opened new space for Islamism in the Arab world\" . Brookings. 5 June 2017. Archived from the original on 17 November 2020 . Retrieved 15 May 2019 . ^ \"Saudi and the Brotherhood: From friends to foes\" . Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020 . Retrieved 7 June 2018 . ^ Ibish, Hussein (5 October 2013). \"Is this the end of the failed Muslim Brotherhood project?\" . The National . Archived from the original on 16 April 2017 . Retrieved 8 October 2013 . ^ Wade, Nicholas (30 August 2013). \"Egypt: What poll results reveal about Brotherhood's popularity\" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 30 December 2022 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . the Brotherhood won Egypt's five democratic votes, ^ \"Egypt's new president to pick woman, Christian VPs\" . CNN. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 7 September 2017 . ^ Jenkins, John (2015). Muslim Brotherhood Review: Main Findings . London: British Parliament . p. 2. ISBN 9781474127127 . He concluded that the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood did not do enough to demonstrate political moderation or a commitment to democratic values, had failed to convince Egyptians of their competence or good intentions, and had subsequently struggled to draw lessons for what its failure in Egypt meant for its future. ^ \"President Morsi Ousted: First Democratically Elected Leader Under House Arrest\" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 7 September 2017 . ^ Jenkins, John (2015). Muslim Brotherhood Review: Main Findings . London: British Parliament . p. 3. ISBN 9781474127127 . Hassan al Banna accepted the political utility of violence, and the Brotherhood conducted attacks, including political assassinations and attempted assassinations against Egyptian state targets and both British and Jewish interests during his lifetime; ^ Jabr, Karam (1999). \"Two Swords.. with the Qur'an in between!\" . Arab West Reports . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Moussalli, Ahmad S. (2012). \"Sayyid Qutb: Founder of Radical Islamic Political Ideology\" . In Akbarzadeh, Shahram (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Political Islam (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge . pp. 24– 26. ISBN 9781138577824 . LCCN 2011025970 . Archived from the original on 11 January 2023 . Retrieved 10 October 2023 . ^ Polk, William R. (2018). \"The Philosopher of the Muslim Revolt, Sayyid Qutb\" . Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-Year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North . The Henry L. Stimson Lectures Series. New Haven and London : Yale University Press . pp. 370– 380. doi : 10.2307/j.ctv1bvnfdq.40 . ISBN 978-0-300-22290-6 . JSTOR j.ctv1bvnfdq.40 . LCCN 2017942543 . Archived from the original on 24 January 2023 . Retrieved 10 October 2023 . ^ Ibrahim, Ahmed (14 August 2023). \"What does the future hold for the Muslim Brotherhood?\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 26 February 2026 . ^ \"Why Turkey Chose Qatar\" . The National Interest . 25 May 2017. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023 . Retrieved 30 May 2018 . ^ \"Bahrain backs Saudi Arabia, UAE, Foreign Minister says\" . Bahrain News Agency. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 . Retrieved 3 November 2014 . ^ \"Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood declared 'terrorist group' \" . BBC News . 25 December 2013. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019 . Retrieved 18 January 2014 . ^ \"Resolution of the State Duma, 2 December 2003 N 3624-III GD \"on the Application of the State Duma of the Russian Federation\" on the suppression of the activities of terrorist organizations on the territory of the Russian Federation\" (in Russian). Consultant Plus . Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. ^ \"Saudi Arabia declares Muslim Brotherhood 'terrorist group' \" . BBC News . 7 March 2014. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014 . Retrieved 7 March 2014 . ^ Shahine, Alaa & Carey, Glen (9 March 2014). \"U.A.E. Supports Saudi Arabia Against Qatar-Backed Brotherhood\" . Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 10 March 2014 . Retrieved 9 March 2014 . ^ Harb, Ali (13 January 2026). \"US labels Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan as 'terrorists' \" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 26 February 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Transnational Sunni Islamist organization The Society of the Muslim Brothers ( Arabic : جماعة الإخوان المسلمين , romanized : Jamāʿat al-Ikhwān al-Muslimīn ), better known as the Muslim Brotherhood ( الإخوان المسلمون , al-Ikhwān al-Muslimūn ) , is a transnational Sunni Islamist organization founded in Egypt by Islamic scholar , imam and schoolteacher Hassan al-Banna in 1928. Al-Banna's teachings spread far beyond Egypt, influencing various Islamist movements from charitable organizations to political parties. Initially, as a pan-Islamist , religious, and social movement , its members preached Islam in Egypt , taught the illiterate , and set up hospitals and business enterprises. The group later advanced into the political arena , aiming to end British colonial rule in Egypt . The movement's self-stated aim is the establishment of a state ruled by Sharia under a caliphate , with one of its most well-known slogans being \"Islam is the solution\". The group combines political activism with Islamic charity work. The group spread to other Muslim countries but still has one of its largest organizations in Egypt, despite a succession of government crackdowns since 1948. It remained a fringe group in the politics of the Arab world until the 1967 Six-Day War , when Islamism replaced popular secular Arab nationalism after a resounding Arab defeat by the State of Israel . The movement was also supported by Saudi Arabia , with which it shared mutual enemies like communism . The Arab Spring initially brought the group legalization and substantial political power, but that expansion had suffered reversals by 2013. The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood was legalized in 2011 and won several elections, including the 2012 Egyptian presidential election , in which its candidate, Mohamed Morsi , became Egypt's first democratically elected president. Following massive demonstrations and unrest , Morsi was overthrown in the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état orchestrated by the military and placed under house arrest; a later review found that the Muslim Brotherhood had failed to moderate its views or embrace democratic values during its time in power. The group was then banned in Egypt and declared a terrorist organization. The Persian Gulf monarchies of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates followed suit. The group's founder accepted the utility of political violence , and members of the Brotherhood conducted assassinations and attempted assassinations on Egyptian state figures during his lifetime, including Egyptian prime minister Mahmoud El Nokrashy Pasha in 1948. In his 1964 book Milestones ( معالم في الطريق , Maʿālim fī aṭ-Ṭarīq ), Sayyid Qutb , one of the group's most prominent thinkers, promoted takfirism , a doctrine permitting \"the stigmatisation of other Muslims as infidel or apostate , and of existing states as un-Islamic, and the use of extreme violence in the pursuit of the perfect Islamic society\"; the doctrine continues to inspire many jihadist movements . The group abandoned the use of violence in the 1970s. However, Hamas , a Palestinian militant group that controls the Gaza Strip , is an offshoot of the Brotherhood that continues to use violence. The Muslim Brotherhood does not have a clear ideological platform on violence. In recent years, the primary state backers of the Muslim Brotherhood have been Qatar and AKP -ruled Turkey . As of 2026 , the flagship group or specific chapters are considered a terrorist organization by the governments of Argentina , Kenya , Germany , Bahrain , Egypt , Russia , Saudi Arabia , the United Arab Emirates , and the United States . ^ Ghattas, Kim (9 February 2001). \"Profile: Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood\" . BBC. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ Al Jazeera Staff (18 June 2017). \"What is the Muslim Brotherhood?\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 9 September 2023 . Retrieved 3 July 2021 . ^ \"Brotherhood Organizational Coups: Qutbism of Thought and Pragmatism of Politics\" . 30 June 2022. Archived from the original on 29 January 2024 . Retrieved 29 January 2024 . ^ \"The Muslim Brotherhood's Ties to Extremists\" . Archived from the original on 29 January 2024 . Retrieved 29 January 2024 . ^ ^ El-Sherif, Ashraf (21 October 2014). \"The Muslim Brotherhood and the Future of Political Islam in Egypt\" . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . Archived from the original on 2 May 2023 . Retrieved 14 September 2017 . ^ Gould, J. J. (30 June 2013). \"Rick Perry and the Muslim Brotherhood: Compare and Contrast – Mona Eltahawy on social conservatism in Egypt and the U.S.\" The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 24 March 2023 . Retrieved 14 September 2017 . ^ Strindberg, Anders; Wärn, Mats (2011), Islamism , Polity, p. 87, ISBN 978-0745640624 ^ Chatterjee, Choi (2018). \"10: Islamic Fundamentalism in Critical Perspective\". The 20th Century: A Retrospective . New York: Routledge. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-8133-2691-7 . ^ K. Gani, Jasmine (21 October 2022). \"Anti-colonial connectivity between Islamicate movements in the Middle East and South Asia: the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamati Islam\" . Post Colonial Studies . 26 . Routledge: 55– 76. doi : 10.1080/13688790.2023.2127660 . hdl : 10023/26238 . ISSN 1368-8790 . S2CID 253068552 . ^ ^ Johnson, Ian (5 February 2011). \"Washington's Secret History with the Muslim Brotherhood\" . The New York Review of Books . Archived from the original on 24 December 2015 . Retrieved 12 April 2016 . ^ Sageman, Marc (2004). \"Chapter 1: The Origins of the Jihad\". Understanding Terror Networks . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-8122-3808-7 . ^ Lenz-Raymann, Kathrin (2014). \"Chapter 3: Salafi Isalm: Social Transformation and Political Islam\". Securitization of Islam: A Vicious Circle: Counter-Terrorism and Freedom of Religion in Central Asia . United Kingdom: Transcript Verlag. p. 80. ISBN 978-3837629040 . JSTOR j.ctv1fxgjp.7 . ^ ^ R. Halverson, Jeffrey (2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam . New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 62, 65. ISBN 978-0-230-10279-8 . Neo-Sufism assumed the basis of a secondary Athari tendency that we find in the thought of Hasan al-Banna and the Muslim Brotherhood... Neo-Sufism... was a major influence on the thought of Hasan al-Banna and the development of the Muslim Brotherhood.. ^ Youssef, Bassem (1 May 2013). \"The Muslim Brotherhood's 'right-wing' politics game\" . Al Arabiya English . Archived from the original on 19 October 2017 . Retrieved 15 September 2017 . ^ Dreyfuss, Robert (11 February 2011). \"What Is the Muslim Brotherhood, and Will It Take Over Egypt?\" . Mother Jones . Archived from the original on 4 August 2020 . Retrieved 9 July 2018 . ^ ^ \"Iran and Muslim Brotherhood: A Bizarre Alliance of Two Rival Ideologies\" . Archived from the original on 6 November 2022 . Retrieved 5 November 2023 . ^ \"Why Turkey Chose Qatar\" . 25 June 2017. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023 . Retrieved 26 November 2022 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Argentina was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Bahrain backs Saudi Arabia, UAE, Foreign Minister says\" . Bahrain News Agency. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014 . Retrieved 3 November 2014 . ^ \"Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood declared 'terrorist group' \" . BBC News . 25 December 2013. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ \"Muslim Brotherhood Gangs (Egypt)\" . Pro-Government Militia. Archived from the original on 26 November 2022 . Retrieved 8 April 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Kenya was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Постановление ГД ФС РФ от 12.02.2003 N 3624-III ГД \"О Заявлении Государственной Думы Федерального Собрания Российской Федерации \"О пресечении деятельности террористических организаций на территории Российской Федерации\" \" [Resolution of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of February 12, 2003 N 3624-III of the State Duma \"On the Statement of the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation \"On the suppression of the activities of terrorist organizations on the territory of the Russian Federation\"] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. ^ \"Saudi Arabia declares Muslim Brotherhood 'terrorist group' \" . BBC News . 7 March 2014. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ \"Assad says 'factors not in place' for Syria peace talks – World News\" . 22 October 2013. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 26 December 2013 . ^ \"U.A.E. Supports Saudi Arabia Against Qatar-Backed Brotherhood\" . Bloomberg.com . 9 March 2014. Archived from the original on 10 March 2014 . Retrieved 10 March 2017 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kevin Borgeson; Robin Valeri (9 July 2009). Terrorism in America . Jones and Bartlett Learning. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7637-5524-9 . Retrieved 9 December 2012 . ^ \"Is the Muslim Brotherhood a Terrorist Group?\" . The New York Times . 30 April 2019. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022 . Retrieved 15 May 2019 . ^ Jenkins, John (2015). Muslim Brotherhood Review: Main Findings . London: British Parliament . p. 1. ISBN 9781474127127 . Hassan al Banna, called for the religious reformation of individual Muslims, the progressive moral purification of Muslim societies and their eventual political unification in a Caliphate under sharia law. ^ \"Muslim Brotherhood and Jama'at-i Islami\" . Pew Research Center . 15 September 2010 . Retrieved 26 February 2026 . ^ Rutherford, Bruce (2008). Egypt After Mubarak . Princeton University Press. p. 99. ^ \"The end of Nasserism: How the 1967 War opened new space for Islamism in the Arab world\" . Brookings. 5 June 2017. Archived from the original on 17 November 2020 . Retrieved 15 May 2019 . ^ \"Saudi and the Brotherhood: From friends to foes\" . Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020 . Retrieved 7 June 2018 . ^ Ibish, Hussein (5 October 2013). \"Is this the end of the failed Muslim Brotherhood project?\" . The National . Archived from the original on 16 April 2017 . Retrieved 8 October 2013 . ^ Wade, Nicholas (30 August 2013). \"Egypt: What poll results reveal about Brotherhood's popularity\" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 30 December 2022 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . the Brotherhood won Egypt's five democratic votes, ^ \"Egypt's new president to pick woman, Christian VPs\" . CNN. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 7 September 2017 . ^ Jenkins, John (2015). Muslim Brotherhood Review: Main Findings . London: British Parliament . p. 2. ISBN 9781474127127 . He concluded that the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood did not do enough to demonstrate political moderation or a commitment to democratic values, had failed to convince Egyptians of their competence or good intentions, and had subsequently struggled to draw lessons for what its failure in Egypt meant for its future. ^ \"President Morsi Ousted: First Democratically Elected Leader Under House Arrest\" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 18 February 2023 . Retrieved 7 September 2017 . ^ Jenkins, John (2015). Muslim Brotherhood Review: Main Findings . London: British Parliament . p. 3. ISBN 9781474127127 . Hassan al Banna accepted the political utility of violence, and the Brotherhood conducted attacks, including political assassinations and attempted assassinations against Egyptian state targets and both British and Jewish interests during his lifetime; ^ Jabr, Karam (1999). \"Two Swords.. with the Qur'an in between!\" . Arab West Reports . Retrieved 24 December 2012 . {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Moussalli, Ahmad S. (2012). \"Sayyid Qutb: Founder of Radical Islamic Political Ideology\" . In Akbarzadeh, Shahram (ed.). Routledge Handbook of Political Islam (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge . pp. 24– 26. ISBN 9781138577824 . LCCN 2011025970 . Archived from the original on 11 January 2023 . Retrieved 10 October 2023 . ^ Polk, William R. (2018). \"The Philosopher of the Muslim Revolt, Sayyid Qutb\" . Crusade and Jihad: The Thousand-Year War Between the Muslim World and the Global North . The Henry L. Stimson Lectures Series. New Haven and London : Yale University Press . pp. 370– 380. doi : 10.2307/j.ctv1bvnfdq.40 . ISBN 978-0-300-22290-6 . JSTOR j.ctv1bvnfdq.40 . LCCN 2017942543 . Archived from the original on 24 January 2023 . Retrieved 10 October 2023 . ^ Ibrahim, Ahmed (14 August 2023). \"What does the future hold for the Muslim Brotherhood?\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 26 February 2026 . ^ \"Why Turkey Chose Qatar\" . The National Interest . 25 May 2017. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023 . Retrieved 30 May 2018 . ^ \"Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood declared 'terrorist group' \" . BBC News . 25 December 2013. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019 . Retrieved 18 January 2014 . ^ \"Resolution of the State Duma, 2 December 2003 N 3624-III GD \"on the Application of the State Duma of the Russian Federation\" on the suppression of the activities of terrorist organizations on the territory of the Russian Federation\" (in Russian). Consultant Plus . Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. ^ \"Saudi Arabia declares Muslim Brotherhood 'terrorist group' \" . BBC News . 7 March 2014. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014 . Retrieved 7 March 2014 . ^ Shahine, Alaa & Carey, Glen (9 March 2014). \"U.A.E. Supports Saudi Arabia Against Qatar-Backed Brotherhood\" . Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 10 March 2014 . Retrieved 9 March 2014 . ^ Harb, Ali (13 January 2026). \"US labels Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan as 'terrorists' \" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 26 February 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Oslo Accords",
   "pageid": 36806601,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-06T06:12:11Z",
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   "lead_before": "1990s Israeli–Palestinian peace agreements Primary concerns Final borders Israeli settlements Palestinian enclaves Jewish state Palestinian political violence Palestinian refugees Security concerns Status of Jerusalem Zionist political violence Secondary concerns Israeli West Bank barrier Places of worship Fatah–Hamas conflict Water Electricity International brokers The \"Quartet\" ( United Nations United States European Union Russia ) Arab League Egypt Jordan United Kingdom France Proposals One-state solution : Isratin Elon Peace Plan Two-state solution : Fahd Plan Allon Plan Arab Peace Initiative Geneva Initiative Lieberman Plan Israeli Peace Initiative Palestinian Prisoners' Document Trump Peace Plan Three-state solution Israeli unilateral plans: Hafrada Disengagement Realignment Others Palestinian Emirates Plan Projects / groups / NGOs Peace-orientated projects Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts Valley of Peace Middle East economic integration Alliance for Middle East Peace Peres Center for Peace v t e The Oslo Accords are a pair of interim agreements between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO): the Oslo I Accord , signed in Washington, D.C. , in 1993; and the Oslo II Accord , signed in Taba, Egypt , in 1995. They marked the start of the Oslo process , a peace process aimed at achieving a peace treaty based on Resolution 242 and Resolution 338 of the United Nations Security Council . The Oslo process began after secret negotiations in Oslo , Norway, resulting in both the recognition of Israel by the PLO and the recognition by Israel of the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people and as a partner in bilateral negotiations. Among the notable outcomes of the Oslo Accords was the creation of the Palestinian Authority , which was tasked with the responsibility of conducting limited Palestinian self-governance over parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip ; and the international acknowledgement of the PLO as Israel's partner in permanent-status negotiations about any remaining issues revolving around the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Bilateral dialogue stems from questions related to the international border between Israel and a future Palestinian state : negotiations for this subject are centered around Israeli settlements , the status of Jerusalem , Israel's maintenance of control over security following the establishment of Palestinian autonomy, and the Palestinian right of return . The Oslo Accords did not create a definite Palestinian state. A portion of the Palestinian population, including various Palestinian militant groups , staunchly opposed the Oslo Accords; Palestinian-American academic Edward Said described them as a \"Palestinian Versailles \". The peace process was strained by the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre as well as by Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad suicide bombings and attacks. Far-right Israelis also opposed the Oslo Accords, and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated in 1995 by a right-wing Israeli extremist for signing them. ^ \"Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements\" . 15 November 2002. Archived from the original on 15 November 2002 . Retrieved 11 December 2023 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ \"Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip\" . 15 November 2002. Archived from the original on 15 November 2002 . Retrieved 11 December 2023 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Mideast accord: the overview; Rabin and Arafat sign accord ending Israel's 27-year hold on Jericho and the Gaza Strip Archived 9 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine . Chris Hedges, New York Times, 5 May 1994. Quote of Yitzhak Rabin: \"We do not accept the Palestinian goal of an independent Palestinian state between Israel and Jordan. We believe there is a separate Palestinian entity short of a state.\" ^ Anne Le More (31 March 2008). International Assistance to the Palestinians After Oslo: Political Guilt, Wasted Money . Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-134-05233-2 . Archived from the original on 21 January 2023 . Retrieved 19 November 2020 . Oslo was opposed by the Islamic movements such as Hamas and Islamic Jihad, parties on the left such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), and also by intellectuals, mainstream politicians and former peace negotiators such as Haydar Abd al-Shafi, Karma Nabulsi and Edward Said. The latter famously described the agreement as... ^ Cite error: The named reference hc was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"What were the Oslo Accords between Israel and the Palestinians?\" . www.aljazeera.com . Archived from the original on 19 October 2023 . Retrieved 18 October 2023 . ^ \"Israel-Palestine peace accord signed | September 13, 1993\" . HISTORY . 9 February 2010 . Retrieved 18 October 2023 .",
   "lead_after": "1990s Israeli–Palestinian peace agreements Primary concerns Final borders Israeli settlements Palestinian enclaves Jewish state Palestinian political violence Palestinian refugees Security concerns Status of Jerusalem Zionist political violence Secondary concerns Israeli West Bank barrier Places of worship Fatah–Hamas conflict Water Electricity International brokers The \"Quartet\" ( United Nations United States European Union Russia ) Arab League Egypt Jordan United Kingdom France Proposals One-state solution : Isratin Elon Peace Plan Two-state solution : Fahd Plan Allon Plan Arab Peace Initiative Geneva Initiative Lieberman Plan Israeli Peace Initiative Palestinian Prisoners' Document Trump Peace Plan Three-state solution Israeli unilateral plans: Hafrada Disengagement Realignment Others Palestinian Emirates Plan Projects / groups / NGOs Peace-orientated projects Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts Valley of Peace Middle East economic integration Alliance for Middle East Peace Peres Center for Peace v t e The Oslo Accords are a pair of interim agreements between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO): the Oslo I Accord , signed in Washington, D.C. , in 1993; and the Oslo II Accord , signed in Taba, Egypt , in 1995. They marked the start of the Oslo process , a peace process aimed at achieving a peace treaty based on Resolution 242 and Resolution 338 of the United Nations Security Council . The Oslo process began after secret negotiations in Oslo , Norway, resulting in both the recognition of Israel by the PLO and the recognition by Israel of the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people and as a partner in bilateral negotiations. Among the notable outcomes of the Oslo Accords was the creation of the Palestinian Authority , which was tasked with the responsibility of conducting limited Palestinian self-governance over parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip ; and the international acknowledgement of the PLO as Israel's partner in permanent-status negotiations about any remaining issues revolving around the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Bilateral dialogue stems from questions related to the international border between Israel and a future Palestinian state : negotiations for this subject are centered around Israeli settlements , the status of Jerusalem , Israel's maintenance of control over security following the establishment of Palestinian autonomy, and the Palestinian right of return . The Oslo Accords did not create a definite Palestinian state. A large portion of the Palestinian population, including various Palestinian militant groups , staunchly opposed the Oslo Accords; Palestinian-American academic Edward Said described them as a \"Palestinian Versailles \". The peace process was strained by the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre as well as by Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad suicide bombings and attacks. Far-right Israelis also opposed the Oslo Accords, and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated in 1995 by a right-wing Israeli extremist for signing them. ^ \"Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements\" . 15 November 2002. Archived from the original on 15 November 2002 . Retrieved 11 December 2023 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ \"Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip\" . 15 November 2002. Archived from the original on 15 November 2002 . Retrieved 11 December 2023 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Mideast accord: the overview; Rabin and Arafat sign accord ending Israel's 27-year hold on Jericho and the Gaza Strip Archived 9 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine . Chris Hedges, New York Times, 5 May 1994. Quote of Yitzhak Rabin: \"We do not accept the Palestinian goal of an independent Palestinian state between Israel and Jordan. We believe there is a separate Palestinian entity short of a state.\" ^ Anne Le More (31 March 2008). International Assistance to the Palestinians After Oslo: Political Guilt, Wasted Money . Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-134-05233-2 . Archived from the original on 21 January 2023 . Retrieved 19 November 2020 . Oslo was opposed by the Islamic movements such as Hamas and Islamic Jihad, parties on the left such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), and also by intellectuals, mainstream politicians and former peace negotiators such as Haydar Abd al-Shafi, Karma Nabulsi and Edward Said. The latter famously described the agreement as... ^ Cite error: The named reference hc was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"What were the Oslo Accords between Israel and the Palestinians?\" . www.aljazeera.com . Archived from the original on 19 October 2023 . Retrieved 18 October 2023 . ^ \"Israel-Palestine peace accord signed | September 13, 1993\" . HISTORY . 9 February 2010 . Retrieved 18 October 2023 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Sharia",
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   "lead_before": "Islamic law \"Islamic law\" redirects here. For other uses, see Islamic law (disambiguation) . Not to be confused with Saria , Shara , Shariyah , or Shahriyar . Sharia ( / ʃ ə ˈ r iː ə / ; Arabic : ‏ شَرِيعَة ‎ , romanized : šarīʿa , lit. ' path [to water] ' , IPA: [ʃaˈriːʕa] ), also transliterated as Sharī'ah , Shari'a , or Shariah , is a body of religious law that form the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam , particularly the Qur'an and hadith . In Islamic terminology sharīʿah refers to immutable, intangible divine law , in contrast to fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), which refers to its interpretations by Islamic scholars . Sharia, or fiqh as traditionally known, has always been used alongside customary law from the very beginning in Islamic history ; it has been elaborated and developed over the centuries by legal opinions issued by qualified jurists – reflecting the tendencies of different schools – and integrated with various economic, penal and administrative laws issued by Muslim rulers; and implemented for centuries by judges in the courts until recent times, when secularism was widely adopted in Islamic societies. Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources for al-sharia: the Qur'an , sunnah (or authentic ahadith ), ijma (lit. consensus) (may be understood as ijma al-ummah ( Arabic : إجماع الأمة ) – a whole Islamic community consensus, or ijma al-aimmah ( Arabic : إجماع الائـمـة ) – a consensus by religious authorities), and analogical reasoning . It distinguishes two principal branches of law, rituals ( Ibadah ) and social dealings ( Muamalat ); subsections family law , relationships (commercial, political / administrative ) and criminal law , in a wide range of topics assigning actions – capable of settling into different categories according to different understandings – to categories ( ahkam ) mainly as: mandatory , recommended , neutral , abhorred , and prohibited . Beyond legal norms, Sharia also enters many areas that are considered private practices today, such as belief, worshipping, ethics, clothing and lifestyle, and gives to those in command duties to intervene and regulate them . Over time with the necessities brought by sociological changes, on the basis of interpretative studies legal schools have emerged, reflecting the preferences of particular societies and governments, as well as Islamic scholars or imams on theoretical and practical applications of laws and regulations. Legal schools of Sunni Islam – Hanafi , Maliki , Shafiʽi , Hanbali , etc. – developed methodologies for deriving rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad , a concept adopted by Shiism in much later periods meaning mental effort. Although Sharia is presented in addition to its other aspects by the contemporary Islamist understanding , as a form of governance some researchers approach traditional sīrah narratives with skepticism, seeing the early history of Islam not as a period when Sharia was dominant, but a kind of \" secular Arabic expansion \" and dating the formation of Islamic identity to a much later period. Approaches to Sharia in the 21st century vary widely, and the role and mutability of Sharia in a changing world has become an increasingly debated topic in Islam. Beyond sectarian differences , fundamentalists advocate the complete and uncompromising implementation of \"exact/pure sharia\" without modifications, while modernists argue that it can/should be brought into line with human rights and other contemporary issues such as democracy, minority rights , freedom of thought , women's rights and banking by new jurisprudences. In fact, several practices of Sharia have been deemed incompatible with human rights , gender equality and freedom of speech and expression . In Muslim majority countries, traditional laws have been widely used with or changed by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education have been brought in line with European practice likewise. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to Sharia, its rules are largely retained only in family law and penalties in some. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought calls by Islamic movements for full implementation of Sharia, including hudud corporal punishments , such as stoning . ^ Bassiouni, M. Cherif (2014) [2013]. \"The Sharīa , Sunni Islamic Law ( Fiqh ), and Legal Methods ( Ilm Uṣūl al-Fiqh )\" . In Bassiouni, M. Cherif (ed.). The Shari'a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 18– 87. doi : 10.1017/CBO9781139629249.003 . ISBN 9781139629249 . LCCN 2013019592 . Archived from the original on 17 October 2021 . Retrieved 17 October 2021 . ^ \"British & World English: sharia\" . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015 . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . ^ Dahlén 2003 , chpt. 2a. ^ \"Al-Qur'an (Arabic-English)\" (PDF) . www.quran.gov.bd . ^ John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). \"Islamic Law\" . The Oxford Dictionary of Islam . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019 . Retrieved 29 January 2017 . ^ Vikør 2014 . ^ Calder 2009 . ^ \"Customary law has also been an important part of Islamic law. It was used to resolve disputes that were not covered by sharia, and it also helped to adapt sharia to the needs of men in different societies and cultures.\" Islamic Law: An Introduction by John Esposito (2019) Esposito, John. Islamic Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. Page 31 ^ \"Another key principle that the early Islamic jurists developed was the concept of urf, or customary law. Urf is the customary practices of a particular community. The early jurists recognized that urf could be used to supplement or complement Islamic law. For example, if there was no clear ruling on a particular issue in the Quran or hadith, the jurists could look to urf for guidance.\" The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law; Emon, Anver M., and Rumee Ahmed, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 25. ^ Corinna Standke (30 August 2008). Sharia – The Islamic Law . GRIN Verlag. pp. 4– 5. ISBN 978-3-640-14967-4 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . ^ Dahlén 2003 , chpt. 4c. ^ Schneider 2014 . ^ John L. Esposito , Natana J. DeLong-Bas (2001), Women in Muslim family law Archived 19 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine , p. 2. Syracuse University Press , ISBN 978-0815629085 . Quote: \"... by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the Quran , the Sunnah of the Prophet, qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (consensus).\" ^ Coulson & El Shamsy 2019 . ^ Hallaq 2010 , p. 145. ^ Mohammad Farzaneh, Mateo (2015). The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani . Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8156-3388-4 . ^ \"The System of Rule in Islam\" . 20 June 2010. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015) ^ Patricia Crone / Martin Hinds: God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (1986) ^ Mehmet Erdoğan. \"Islamic Law and Change: Constants and Variables\" . Archived from the original on 30 November 2024. ^ Amanat 2009 : \"Muslim fundamentalists [...] claim that Shari'a and its sources [...] constitute a divine law that regulates all aspects of Muslim life, as well as Muslim societies and Muslim states [...]. Muslim modernists, [...] on the other hand, criticize the old approaches to Shari'a by traditional Muslim jurists as obsolete and instead advocate innovative approaches to Shari'a that accommodate more pluralist and relativist views within a democratic framework.\" ^ Russo, Maria Sole (15 October 2019). \"Clash between Sharia law and human rights in light of PACE Resolution 2253 - Ius In Itinere\" . Ius In Itinere (in Italian). Archived from the original on 25 February 2025 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ An-Na'im, Abdullahi A (1996). \"Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights\" . In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.). Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives . BRILL. pp. 337– 59. ISBN 978-9041101792 . ^ Hajjar, Lisa (2004). \"Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis\". Law & Social Inquiry . 29 (1): 1– 38. doi : 10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x . ISSN 0897-6546 . JSTOR 4092696 . S2CID 145681085 . ^ Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; ISBN 978-0253209399 ^ Russo, Maria Sole (15 October 2019). \"Clash between Sharia law and human rights in light of PACE Resolution 2253 - Ius In Itinere\" . Ius In Itinere (in Italian). Archived from the original on 25 February 2025 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Mölzer, Andreas. \"Interrogazione parlamentare | Limitazione dei diritti umani conseguente alla sharia | E-001463/2011 | Parlamento Europeo\" . www.europarl.europa.eu (in Italian) . Retrieved 18 May 2025 . ^ \"L'Europa deve bandire la Sharia\" (in Italian). 7 September 2014 . Retrieved 19 September 2025 . ^ \"La Sharia è già in Italia. Va messa al bando con una legge. E' contro la Costituzione e il diritto italiano. – Il blog di Carlo Franza\" . blog.ilgiornale.it . Retrieved 19 September 2025 . ^ \"Council of Europe: Can Sharia Law Prevail Human Rights?\" . European Centre for Law and Justice . 8 February 2017 . Retrieved 21 May 2025 . ^ Hirsch, Afua (23 October 2008). \"Sharia law incompatible with human rights legislation, Lords say\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 May 2025 . ^ Otto 2008 , p. 19. ^ Mayer 2009 . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Islamic law \"Islamic law\" redirects here. For other uses, see Islamic law (disambiguation) . Not to be confused with Saria , Shara , Shariyah , or Shahriyar . Sharia ( / ʃ ə ˈ r iː ə / ; Arabic : ‏ شَرِيعَة ‎ , romanized : šarīʿa , lit. ' path [to water] ' , IPA: [ʃaˈriːʕa] ), also transliterated as Sharī'ah , Shari'a , or Shariah , is a body of religious law that form the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam , particularly the Qur'an and hadith . In Islamic terminology sharīʿah refers to immutable, intangible divine law , in contrast to fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), which refers to its interpretations by Islamic scholars . Sharia, or fiqh as traditionally known, has always been used alongside customary law from the very beginning in Islamic history ; it has been elaborated and developed over the centuries by legal opinions issued by qualified jurists – reflecting the tendencies of different schools – and integrated with various economic, penal and administrative laws issued by Muslim rulers; and implemented for centuries by judges in the courts until recent times, when secularism was widely adopted in Islamic societies. Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources for al-sharia: the Qur'an , sunnah (or authentic ahadith ), ijma (lit. consensus) (may be understood as ijma al-ummah ( Arabic : إجماع الأمة ) – a whole Islamic community consensus, or ijma al-aimmah ( Arabic : إجماع الائـمـة ) – a consensus by religious authorities), and analogical reasoning . It distinguishes two principal branches of law, rituals ( Ibadah ) and social dealings ( Muamalat ); subsections family law , relationships (commercial, political / administrative ) and criminal law , in a wide range of topics assigning actions – capable of settling into different categories according to different understandings – to categories ( ahkam ) mainly as: mandatory , recommended , neutral , abhorred , and prohibited . Beyond legal norms, Sharia also enters many areas that are considered private practices today, such as belief, worshipping, ethics, clothing and lifestyle, and gives to those in command duties to intervene and regulate them . Over time with the necessities brought by sociological changes, on the basis of interpretative studies legal schools have emerged, reflecting the preferences of particular societies and governments, as well as Islamic scholars or imams on theoretical and practical applications of laws and regulations. Legal schools of Sunni Islam – Hanafi , Maliki , Shafiʽi , Hanbali , etc. – developed methodologies for deriving rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad , a concept adopted by Shiism in much later periods meaning mental effort. Although Sharia is presented in addition to its other aspects by the contemporary Islamist understanding , as a form of governance some researchers approach traditional sīrah narratives with skepticism, seeing the early history of Islam not as a period when Sharia was dominant, but a kind of \" secular Arabic expansion \" and dating the formation of Islamic identity to a much later period. Approaches to Sharia in the 21st century vary widely, and the role and mutability of Sharia in a changing world has become an increasingly debated topic in Islam. Beyond sectarian differences , fundamentalists advocate the complete and uncompromising implementation of \"exact/pure sharia\" without modifications, while modernists argue that it can/should be brought into line with human rights and other contemporary issues such as democracy, minority rights , freedom of thought , women's rights and banking by new jurisprudences. Several practices of Sharia have been deemed incompatible with human rights , gender equality and freedom of speech and expression . In Muslim majority countries, traditional laws have been widely used with or changed by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education have been brought in line with European practice likewise. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to Sharia, its rules are largely retained only in family law and penalties in some. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought calls by Islamic movements for full implementation of Sharia, including hudud corporal punishments , such as stoning . ^ Bassiouni, M. Cherif (2014) [2013]. \"The Sharīa , Sunni Islamic Law ( Fiqh ), and Legal Methods ( Ilm Uṣūl al-Fiqh )\" . In Bassiouni, M. Cherif (ed.). The Shari'a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 18– 87. doi : 10.1017/CBO9781139629249.003 . ISBN 9781139629249 . LCCN 2013019592 . Archived from the original on 17 October 2021 . Retrieved 17 October 2021 . ^ \"British & World English: sharia\" . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015 . Retrieved 4 December 2015 . ^ Dahlén 2003 , chpt. 2a. ^ \"Al-Qur'an (Arabic-English)\" (PDF) . www.quran.gov.bd . ^ John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). \"Islamic Law\" . The Oxford Dictionary of Islam . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019 . Retrieved 29 January 2017 . ^ Vikør 2014 . ^ Calder 2009 . ^ \"Customary law has also been an important part of Islamic law. It was used to resolve disputes that were not covered by sharia, and it also helped to adapt sharia to the needs of men in different societies and cultures.\" Islamic Law: An Introduction by John Esposito (2019) Esposito, John. Islamic Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. Page 31 ^ \"Another key principle that the early Islamic jurists developed was the concept of urf, or customary law. Urf is the customary practices of a particular community. The early jurists recognized that urf could be used to supplement or complement Islamic law. For example, if there was no clear ruling on a particular issue in the Quran or hadith, the jurists could look to urf for guidance.\" The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law; Emon, Anver M., and Rumee Ahmed, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 25. ^ Corinna Standke (30 August 2008). Sharia – The Islamic Law . GRIN Verlag. pp. 4– 5. ISBN 978-3-640-14967-4 . Retrieved 9 June 2012 . ^ Dahlén 2003 , chpt. 4c. ^ Schneider 2014 . ^ John L. Esposito , Natana J. DeLong-Bas (2001), Women in Muslim family law Archived 19 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine , p. 2. Syracuse University Press , ISBN 978-0815629085 . Quote: \"... by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the Quran , the Sunnah of the Prophet, qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (consensus).\" ^ Coulson & El Shamsy 2019 . ^ Hallaq 2010 , p. 145. ^ Mohammad Farzaneh, Mateo (2015). The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani . Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8156-3388-4 . ^ \"The System of Rule in Islam\" . 20 June 2010. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023 . Retrieved 8 November 2023 . ^ Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015) ^ Patricia Crone / Martin Hinds: God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (1986) ^ Mehmet Erdoğan. \"Islamic Law and Change: Constants and Variables\" . Archived from the original on 30 November 2024. ^ Amanat 2009 : \"Muslim fundamentalists [...] claim that Shari'a and its sources [...] constitute a divine law that regulates all aspects of Muslim life, as well as Muslim societies and Muslim states [...]. Muslim modernists, [...] on the other hand, criticize the old approaches to Shari'a by traditional Muslim jurists as obsolete and instead advocate innovative approaches to Shari'a that accommodate more pluralist and relativist views within a democratic framework.\" ^ Russo, Maria Sole (15 October 2019). \"Clash between Sharia law and human rights in light of PACE Resolution 2253 - Ius In Itinere\" . Ius In Itinere (in Italian). Archived from the original on 25 February 2025 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ An-Na'im, Abdullahi A (1996). \"Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights\" . In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.). Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives . BRILL. pp. 337– 59. ISBN 978-9041101792 . ^ Hajjar, Lisa (2004). \"Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis\". Law & Social Inquiry . 29 (1): 1– 38. doi : 10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x . ISSN 0897-6546 . JSTOR 4092696 . S2CID 145681085 . ^ Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; ISBN 978-0253209399 ^ Russo, Maria Sole (15 October 2019). \"Clash between Sharia law and human rights in light of PACE Resolution 2253 - Ius In Itinere\" . Ius In Itinere (in Italian). Archived from the original on 25 February 2025 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Mölzer, Andreas. \"Interrogazione parlamentare | Limitazione dei diritti umani conseguente alla sharia | E-001463/2011 | Parlamento Europeo\" . www.europarl.europa.eu (in Italian) . Retrieved 18 May 2025 . ^ \"L'Europa deve bandire la Sharia\" (in Italian). 7 September 2014 . Retrieved 19 September 2025 . ^ \"La Sharia è già in Italia. Va messa al bando con una legge. E' contro la Costituzione e il diritto italiano. – Il blog di Carlo Franza\" . blog.ilgiornale.it . Retrieved 19 September 2025 . ^ \"Council of Europe: Can Sharia Law Prevail Human Rights?\" . European Centre for Law and Justice . 8 February 2017 . Retrieved 21 May 2025 . ^ Hirsch, Afua (23 October 2008). \"Sharia law incompatible with human rights legislation, Lords say\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 21 May 2025 . ^ Otto 2008 , p. 19. ^ Mayer 2009 . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Palestinian nationalism",
   "pageid": 47246228,
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   "lead_before": "Movement for self-determination and sovereignty of Palestine For broader coverage of this topic, see History of Palestinian nationality . Palestinian nationalism is the national movement of the Palestinian people that espouses self-determination and sovereignty over the region of Palestine . Originally formed in the early 20th century in opposition to Zionism , Palestinian nationalism later internationalized and attached itself to other ideologies; it has thus rejected the occupation of the Palestinian territories by the government of Israel since the 1967 Six-Day War . Palestinian nationalists often draw upon broader political traditions in their ideology , such as Arab socialism and ethnic nationalism in the context of Muslim religious nationalism . Related beliefs have shaped the government of Palestine and continue to do so. In the broader context of the Arab–Israeli conflict in the 21st century, Palestinian nationalist aims have included an end to the refugee status of individuals separated from their native lands during the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight , advocates stating that a \" right of return \" exists either to the occupied territories or to both those areas plus places within Israel itself. Nationalists have additionally worked to advance specific causes in terms of current residents' lives such as freedom of assembly , labor rights , the right to health care , and the right to travel . Divisions exist between nationalists over particular ideological goals, an example being the gulf between Islamist Palestinians favoring a more authoritarian state compared to centrist and secular Palestinians supporting democratic self-determination . Palestinian nationalists are also divided by preferred tactics; some favor nonviolent resistance while others advocate for and engage in political violence both inside and outside Israel . Flag of Palestine ^ de Waart, 1994, p. 223 . Referencing Article 9 of The Palestinian National Charter of 1968 . The Avalon Project has a copy here [1] ^ Joffe, Alex. \"Palestinians and Internationalization: Means and Ends.\" Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies . 26 November 2017. 28 November 2017. ^ \"No UN Vote Can Deny the Palestinian People Their Right to Self Determination\" . The Huffington Post . 2 January 2015 . Retrieved 13 October 2024 . ^ Ibish, Hussen. \"Anti-Semitism Is Poison for the Palestinian Cause.\" The Atlantic . 7 October 2025. 7 October 2025.",
   "lead_after": "Movement for self-determination and sovereignty of Palestine For broader coverage of this topic, see History of Palestinian nationality . Palestinian nationalism is the national movement of the Palestinian people that espouses self-determination and sovereignty over the region of Palestine . Originally formed in the early 20th century in opposition to Zionism , Palestinian nationalism later internationalized and attached itself to other ideologies; it has thus rejected the occupation of the Palestinian territories by the government of Israel since the 1967 Six-Day War . Palestinian nationalists often draw upon broader political traditions in their ideology , such as Arab socialism and ethnic nationalism in the context of Muslim religious nationalism . Related beliefs have shaped the government of Palestine and continue to do so. In the broader context of the Arab–Israeli conflict in the 21st century, Palestinian nationalist aims have included an end to the refugee status of individuals separated from their native lands during the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight , advocates stating that a \" right of return \" exists either to the occupied territories or to both those areas plus places within Israel itself. Nationalists have additionally worked to advance specific causes in terms of current residents' lives such as freedom of assembly , labor rights , the right to health care , and the right to travel . Divisions exist between nationalists over particular ideological goals, an example being the gulf between Islamist Palestinians favoring a more authoritarian state compared to centrist and secular Palestinians supporting democratic self-determination . Palestinian nationalists are also divided by preferred tactics; some favor nonviolent resistance while others advocate for and engage in political violence both inside and outside Israel . Flag of Palestine ^ de Waart, 1994, p. 223 . Referencing Article 9 of The Palestinian National Charter of 1968 . The Avalon Project has a copy here [1] ^ Joffe, Alex. \"Palestinians and Internationalization: Means and Ends.\" Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies . 26 November 2017. 28 November 2017. ^ \"No UN Vote Can Deny the Palestinian People Their Right to Self Determination\" . The Huffington Post . 2 January 2015 . Retrieved 13 October 2024 . ^ Ibish, Hussen. \"Anti-Semitism Is Poison for the Palestinian Cause.\" The Atlantic . 7 October 2025. 7 October 2025."
  },
  {
   "title": "Arab–Israeli conflict",
   "pageid": 7960202,
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   "lead_before": "Geopolitical conflict in the Middle East This article is about the broader conflict between Israel and the Arab world. For the specific conflict between Israel and Palestine, see Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Belligerents Israel Mahal volunteers ( 1948 ) United Kingdom ( 1956 ) France ( 1956 ) Free Lebanon (1978–1984) South Lebanon Army (1984–2000) Supported by: United States (1967/ 1973 –present) Soviet Union (1948–1949) Czechoslovakia ( 1948–1949 ) Netherlands ( 1973 ) Portugal ( 1973 ) Arab League (1948–1979) Egypt (1948–1979) Jordan (1948–1994) Lebanon (1948–present) Hezbollah (1985–present) Iraq (1948–present) Syria (1948–present) Saudi Arabia (1948–1949) Yemen (1948–1949) All-Palestine (1948–1959) AHW (1947–1949) Fedayeen (1949–1964) PLO (1964–present) Palestinian Authority (1994–present) Hamas (1988–present) 1973 Reinforcements Saudi Arabia Algeria Libya Kuwait Tunisia Morocco Supported by: Soviet Union (1955–1991) Cuba (1973) North Korea (1973) Iran ( Axis of Resistance , 1979–present) Commanders and leaders David Ben-Gurion (1948–1963) Yigael Yadin (1948–1952) Yaakov Dori (1948–1949) Yitzhak Rabin X (1948–1995) Ariel Sharon (1948–2005) Ehud Barak (1959–2013) Benjamin Netanyahu (1996–present) Moshe Dayan (1948–1979) Saad Haddad (1978–1984) Antoine Lahad (1984–2000) Farouk I (1948–1965) Mohamed Naguib (1948–1984) Gamal Abdel Nasser (1948–1970) Anwar Sadat (1948–1978) Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi (1948–1979) Saad el-Shazly (1948–2011) Abdullah I (1948–1951) John Bagot Glubb (1948–1956) Hussein (1953–1994) Habis Majali (1948–2001) Hafez al-Assad (1948–2000) Amin al-Husseini (1948–1974) Abdul Qadir al-Husayni † Hasan Salama † Fawzi al-Qawuqji (1948–1977) Casualties and losses See § Casualties for details. Since the declaration of Israel's establishment in 1948, conflict has existed between Israel and the surrounding Arab countries , rooted in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Zionists viewed the region of Palestine as the Jewish ancestral homeland and sought to establish a Jewish state or homeland there through colonization , while Arabs generally opposed Zionism , envisioning Palestine as Arab Palestinian land and an essential part of the Arab world . By 1920, sectarian conflict had begun following the first , second , and third waves of Zionist migration to Palestine and the Franco-British occupation and administration (1918–1920) of the former territories of Ottoman Syria (1516–1918) and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire after World War I . In 1920, following agreements including the 1916 Sykes–Picot treaty between Britain and France , the McMahon–Hussein correspondence , and the Balfour Declaration , which expressed British support for \"the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people\", the League of Nations accorded the Mandate for Palestine to the British, establishing British rule in Mandatory Palestine (1920–1948). The intercommunal violence escalated into civil war in 1947 after the United Nations' adoption of the Partition Plan for Palestine , and then into an international war in 1948 with the May 14 declaration of the establishment of Israel, the expiration of British Mandate at midnight, and the entry of Arab regular armies the following morning. The 1948 Palestine war ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreements , which established the Green Line . More wars followed in 1956 , 1967 , 1973 , and 1982 . Several peace treaties and other diplomatic and economic accords were signed over the subsequent half-century. In 2002, the Arab League proposed the Arab Peace Initiative , although diplomatic activity between Israel and individual Arab countries involved ceasefires and later formal relations with some. By 2020, the Abraham Accords further calmed relations. Conflicts between Israel and various Palestinian factions ebbed and flowed, including the 1987–1993 First Intifada , Israel's intervention in the 1975–1990 Lebanese Civil War to oust the Palestine Liberation Organization from Lebanon , the 2000–2005 Second Intifada , the 2011–2024 Syrian civil war , and most recently the October 7 attacks in 2023 and ensuing Gaza war . ^ Kumaraswamy, P. R. (2013). Revisiting the Yom Kippur War . Routledge. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-136-32895-4 . ^ Rucker, Laurent. \"Moscow's Surprise: The Soviet-Israeli Alliance of 1947-1949\" (PDF) . Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars . ^ Kramer, Martin (6 November 2017). \"Who saved Israel in 1947?\" (PDF) . Mosaic . ^ \"The Czech arms that saved Israel\" . The Jerusalem Post . 30 November 2020 . Retrieved 24 December 2023 . ^ \"Manfred Gerstenfeld on Joop den Uyl 1919–1987\" . 7 April 2015. Archived from the original on 7 April 2015 . Retrieved 25 December 2023 . ^ Edgar O'Ballance (1979). No Victor, No Vanquished: The Yom Kippur War (1979 ed.). Barrie & Jenkins . pp. 28– 370. ISBN 978-0-214-20670-2 . ^ Shazly, Saad El (1 January 2003). The Crossing of the Suez . American Mideast Research. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-9604562-2-2 . ^ \"An unknown story from the Yom Kippur war: Israeli F-4s vs North Korean MiG-21s\" . The Aviationist . 24 June 2013 . Retrieved 27 June 2015 . ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (2004). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter that Transformed the Middle East . Schocken Books. pp. 464– 465. ISBN 978-0-8052-1124-5 . ^ Hussain, Hamid (November 2002). \"The Fourth Round - A Critical Review of 1973 Arab-Israeli War\" . Defence Journal . Archived from the original on 16 January 2009. ^ Mahjoub Tobji (2006). Les officiers de Sa Majesté: Les dérives des généraux marocains 1956–2006 . Fayard. p. 107. ISBN 978-2-213-63015-1 . ^ Katz, Mark N. (1996). \"Post-Soviet Russian Foreign Policy Towards the Middle East\". The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review . 23 (1): 235. doi : 10.1163/187633296X00159 . ^ Ra'anan, G. D. (1981). The Evolution of the Soviet Use of Surrogates in Military Relations with the Third World, with Particular Emphasis on Cuban Participation in Africa . Santa Monica: Rand Corporation. p. 37 ^ Shazly (2003) , pp. 83–84. ^ Cenciotti, David. \"Israeli F-4s Actually Fought North Korean MiGs During the Yom Kippur War\" . Business Insider . ^ \"Arab–Israeli wars\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 7 July 2023. Archived from the original on 23 April 2018 . Retrieved 31 May 2018 . ^ Scott MacLeod (8 January 2009). \"Time to Test the Arab Peace Offer\" . Time . Archived from the original on 17 January 2009. ^ \"The Arab-Israeli conflict is fading\" . The Economist . 19 September 2020. Archived from the original on 5 October 2020 . Retrieved 5 October 2020 . ^ * Dumper, Michael; Badran, Amneh (2024). \"Introduction\". In Dumper, Michael; Badran, Amneh (eds.). Routledge Handbook on Palestine (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 2. doi : 10.4324/9781003031994 . ISBN 9781003031994 . In this context we should not overlook the latest turning point in the history of Palestine – the attack by Hamas on 7th October 2023 on Israeli settlements adjacent to Gaza and the subsequent genocidal war that the state of Israel has carried out in the Gaza strip Speri, Alice (20 December 2024). \"Defining genocide: how a rift over Gaza sparked a crisis among scholars\" . Guardian . Retrieved 23 December 2024 . Narea, Nicole (25 October 2024). \"Is Israel committing genocide? Reexamining the question, a year later\" . Vox . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) Albanese, Francesca (25 March 2024). Anatomy of a Genocide: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, Francesca Albanese (PDF) (Report). United Nations Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories . p. 1. By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met Amnesty International (2024). 'You Feel Like You Are Subhuman': Israel's Genocide Against Palestinians In Gaza (PDF) (Report). p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2024. This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide. Traverso, Enzo (2024). Gaza Faces History . Other Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-63542-555-0 . The only normative definition we have, codified at the United Nations Genocide Convention of 1948, accurately describes the current situation in Palestine ... describes exactly what is happening in Gaza today \"One year of denouncing the genocide of Palestinians in Gaza\" . International Federation for Human Rights . 12 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 June 2025 . One year ago, the FIDH International Board, its governing body elected by all its member organisations, recognised, after extensive debate and examination, that Israel was carrying out genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza B'Tselem (July 2025). Our Genocide (PDF) (Report). p. 86. The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid — all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip. ^ Mohyeldin, Ayman; Hamdan, Basel (10 December 2024). \"Why Amnesty International and other experts say Israel is committing genocide in Gaza\" . MSNBC . Archived from the original on 3 July 2025. De Vogli, Roberto; Montomoli, Jonathan; Abu-Sittah, Ghassan; Pappé, Ilan (2025). \"Break the selective silence on the genocide in Gaza\". The Lancet . 406 (10504). Supplementary appendix pp. 3–4 . doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01541-7 . PMID 40752501 . van Laarhoven, Kasper; Peek, Eva; Walters, Derk (14 May 2025). \"Zeven gerenommeerde wetenschappers vrijwel eensgezind: Israël pleegt in Gaza genocide\" . NRC (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 15 May 2025 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . Tharoor, Ishaan (30 July 2025). \"Leading genocide scholars see a genocide happening in Gaza\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2 August 2025 .",
   "lead_after": "Geopolitical conflict in the Middle East This article is about the broader conflict between Israel and the Arab world. For the specific conflict between Israel and Palestine, see Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Belligerents Israel Mahal volunteers ( 1948 ) United Kingdom ( 1956 ) France ( 1956 ) Free Lebanon (1978–1984) South Lebanon Army (1984–2000) Supported by: United States (1967/ 1973 –present) Soviet Union (1948–1949) Czechoslovakia ( 1948–1949 ) Netherlands ( 1973 ) Portugal ( 1973 ) Arab League (1948–1979) Egypt (1948–1979) Jordan (1948–1994) Lebanon (1948–present) Hezbollah (1985–present) Iraq (1948–present) Syria (1948–present) Saudi Arabia (1948–1949) Yemen (1948–1949) All-Palestine (1948–1959) AHW (1947–1949) Fedayeen (1949–1964) PLO (1964–present) Palestinian Authority (1994–present) Hamas (1988–present) 1973 Reinforcements Saudi Arabia Algeria Libya Kuwait Tunisia Morocco Supported by: Soviet Union (1955–1991) Cuba (1973) North Korea (1973) Iran ( Axis of Resistance , 1979–present) Commanders and leaders David Ben-Gurion (1948–1963) Yigael Yadin (1948–1952) Yaakov Dori (1948–1949) Yitzhak Rabin X (1948–1995) Ariel Sharon (1948–2005) Ehud Barak (1959–2013) Benjamin Netanyahu (1996–present) Moshe Dayan (1948–1979) Saad Haddad (1978–1984) Antoine Lahad (1984–2000) Farouk I (1948–1965) Mohamed Naguib (1948–1984) Gamal Abdel Nasser (1948–1970) Anwar Sadat (1948–1978) Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi (1948–1979) Saad el-Shazly (1948–2011) Abdullah I (1948–1951) John Bagot Glubb (1948–1956) Hussein (1953–1994) Habis Majali (1948–2001) Hafez al-Assad (1948–2000) Amin al-Husseini (1948–1974) Abdul Qadir al-Husayni † Hasan Salama † Fawzi al-Qawuqji (1948–1977) Casualties and losses See § Casualties for details. Since the declaration of Israel's establishment in 1948, conflict has existed between Israel and the surrounding Arab countries , rooted in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Zionists viewed the region of Palestine as the Jewish ancestral homeland and sought to establish a Jewish state or homeland there through colonization , while Arabs generally opposed Zionism , envisioning Palestine as Arab Palestinian land and an essential part of the Arab world . By 1920, sectarian conflict had begun following the first , second , and third waves of Zionist migration to Palestine and the Franco-British occupation and administration (1918–1920) of the former territories of Ottoman Syria (1516–1918) and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire after World War I . In 1920, following agreements including the 1916 Sykes–Picot treaty between Britain and France , the McMahon–Hussein correspondence , and the Balfour Declaration , which expressed British support for \"the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people\", the League of Nations accorded the Mandate for Palestine to the British, establishing British rule in Mandatory Palestine (1920–1948). The intercommunal violence escalated into civil war in 1947 after the United Nations' adoption of the Partition Plan for Palestine , and then into an international war in 1948 with the May 14 declaration of the establishment of Israel, the expiration of British Mandate at midnight, and the entry of Arab regular armies the following morning. The 1948 Palestine war ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreements , which established the Green Line . More wars followed in 1956 , 1967 , 1973 , and 1982 . Several peace treaties and other diplomatic and economic accords were signed over the subsequent half-century. In 2002, the Arab League proposed the Arab Peace Initiative , although diplomatic activity between Israel and individual Arab countries involved ceasefires and later formal relations with some. By 2020, the Abraham Accords further calmed relations. Conflicts between Israel and various Palestinian factions ebbed and flowed, including the 1987–1993 First Intifada , Israel's intervention in the 1975–1990 Lebanese Civil War to oust the Palestine Liberation Organization from Lebanon , the 2000–2005 Second Intifada , the 2011–2024 Syrian civil war , and most recently the October 7 attacks in 2023 and ensuing Gaza war . ^ Kumaraswamy, P. R. (2013). Revisiting the Yom Kippur War . Routledge. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-136-32895-4 . ^ Rucker, Laurent. \"Moscow's Surprise: The Soviet-Israeli Alliance of 1947-1949\" (PDF) . Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars . ^ Kramer, Martin (6 November 2017). \"Who saved Israel in 1947?\" (PDF) . Mosaic . ^ \"The Czech arms that saved Israel\" . The Jerusalem Post . 30 November 2020 . Retrieved 24 December 2023 . ^ \"Manfred Gerstenfeld on Joop den Uyl 1919–1987\" . 7 April 2015. Archived from the original on 7 April 2015 . Retrieved 25 December 2023 . ^ Edgar O'Ballance (1979). No Victor, No Vanquished: The Yom Kippur War (1979 ed.). Barrie & Jenkins . pp. 28– 370. ISBN 978-0-214-20670-2 . ^ Shazly, Saad El (1 January 2003). The Crossing of the Suez . American Mideast Research. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-9604562-2-2 . ^ \"An unknown story from the Yom Kippur war: Israeli F-4s vs North Korean MiG-21s\" . The Aviationist . 24 June 2013 . Retrieved 27 June 2015 . ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (2004). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter that Transformed the Middle East . Schocken Books. pp. 464– 465. ISBN 978-0-8052-1124-5 . ^ Hussain, Hamid (November 2002). \"The Fourth Round - A Critical Review of 1973 Arab-Israeli War\" . Defence Journal . Archived from the original on 16 January 2009. ^ Mahjoub Tobji (2006). Les officiers de Sa Majesté: Les dérives des généraux marocains 1956–2006 . Fayard. p. 107. ISBN 978-2-213-63015-1 . ^ Katz, Mark N. (1996). \"Post-Soviet Russian Foreign Policy Towards the Middle East\". The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review . 23 (1): 235. doi : 10.1163/187633296X00159 . ^ Ra'anan, G. D. (1981). The Evolution of the Soviet Use of Surrogates in Military Relations with the Third World, with Particular Emphasis on Cuban Participation in Africa . Santa Monica: Rand Corporation. p. 37 ^ Shazly (2003) , pp. 83–84. ^ Cenciotti, David. \"Israeli F-4s Actually Fought North Korean MiGs During the Yom Kippur War\" . Business Insider . ^ \"Arab–Israeli wars\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . 7 July 2023. Archived from the original on 23 April 2018 . Retrieved 31 May 2018 . ^ Scott MacLeod (8 January 2009). \"Time to Test the Arab Peace Offer\" . Time . Archived from the original on 17 January 2009. ^ \"The Arab-Israeli conflict is fading\" . The Economist . 19 September 2020. Archived from the original on 5 October 2020 . Retrieved 5 October 2020 . ^ * Dumper, Michael; Badran, Amneh (2024). \"Introduction\". In Dumper, Michael; Badran, Amneh (eds.). Routledge Handbook on Palestine (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 2. doi : 10.4324/9781003031994 . ISBN 9781003031994 . In this context we should not overlook the latest turning point in the history of Palestine – the attack by Hamas on 7th October 2023 on Israeli settlements adjacent to Gaza and the subsequent genocidal war that the state of Israel has carried out in the Gaza strip Speri, Alice (20 December 2024). \"Defining genocide: how a rift over Gaza sparked a crisis among scholars\" . Guardian . Retrieved 23 December 2024 . Narea, Nicole (25 October 2024). \"Is Israel committing genocide? Reexamining the question, a year later\" . Vox . Retrieved 28 October 2024 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) Albanese, Francesca (25 March 2024). Anatomy of a Genocide: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Palestinian territories occupied since 1967, Francesca Albanese (PDF) (Report). United Nations Special Rapporteur on the occupied Palestinian territories . p. 1. By analysing the patterns of violence and Israeli policies in its onslaught on Gaza, the present report concludes that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the threshold indicating that Israel has committed genocide has been met Amnesty International (2024). 'You Feel Like You Are Subhuman': Israel's Genocide Against Palestinians In Gaza (PDF) (Report). p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 December 2024. This report focuses on the Israeli authorities' policies and actions in Gaza as part of the military offensive they launched in the wake of the Hamas-led attacks on 7 October 2023 while situating them within the broader context of Israel's unlawful occupation, and system of apartheid against Palestinians in Gaza, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Israel. It assesses allegations of violations and crimes under international law by Israel in Gaza within the framework of genocide under international law, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to believe that Israel's conduct in Gaza following 7 October 2023 amounts to genocide. Traverso, Enzo (2024). Gaza Faces History . Other Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-63542-555-0 . The only normative definition we have, codified at the United Nations Genocide Convention of 1948, accurately describes the current situation in Palestine ... describes exactly what is happening in Gaza today \"One year of denouncing the genocide of Palestinians in Gaza\" . International Federation for Human Rights . 12 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 June 2025 . One year ago, the FIDH International Board, its governing body elected by all its member organisations, recognised, after extensive debate and examination, that Israel was carrying out genocide against the Palestinian people in Gaza B'Tselem (July 2025). Our Genocide (PDF) (Report). p. 86. The review presented in this report leaves no room for doubt: since October 2023, the Israeli regime has been responsible for carrying out genocide against the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Killing tens of thousands of people; causing bodily or mental harm to hundreds of thousands more; destroying homes and civilian infrastructure on a massive scale; starvation, displacement, and denying humanitarian aid — all this is being perpetrated systematically, as part of a coordinated attack aimed at annihilating all facets of life in the Gaza Strip. ^ Mohyeldin, Ayman; Hamdan, Basel (10 December 2024). \"Why Amnesty International and other experts say Israel is committing genocide in Gaza\" . MSNBC . Archived from the original on 3 July 2025. De Vogli, Roberto; Montomoli, Jonathan; Abu-Sittah, Ghassan; Pappé, Ilan (2025). \"Break the selective silence on the genocide in Gaza\". The Lancet . 406 (10504). Supplementary appendix pp. 3–4 . doi : 10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01541-7 . PMID 40752501 . van Laarhoven, Kasper; Peek, Eva; Walters, Derk (14 May 2025). \"Zeven gerenommeerde wetenschappers vrijwel eensgezind: Israël pleegt in Gaza genocide\" . NRC (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 15 May 2025 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . Tharoor, Ishaan (30 July 2025). \"Leading genocide scholars see a genocide happening in Gaza\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 2 August 2025 ."
  },
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   "lead_before": "Religious wars of the High Middle Ages This article is about the religious wars between the 11th and 13th centuries. For the theoretical, sociological, institutional, military, and financial dimensions of crusading, see Crusading movement . For other uses, see Crusade (disambiguation) and Crusaders (disambiguation) . 14th-century miniature of the Battle of Dorylaeum (1147) , a Second Crusade battle, from the Estoire d'Eracles The Crusades were a series of military campaigns launched by the papacy between 1095 and 1291 against Muslim rulers for the recovery and defence of the Holy Land , as part of a wider crusading movement . The First Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in November 1095—a call to arms for Christians to reconquer Jerusalem from the Muslims, with promises of spiritual reward. By this time, the papacy's position as head of the Catholic Church had strengthened, and earlier conflicts with secular rulers and wars on the frontiers of Western Christendom had prepared it for the direction of armed force in religious causes. The successes of the First Crusade led to the establishment of four Crusader states in the Levant , where their defence required further expeditions from Catholic Europe . The organisation of such large-scale campaigns demanded complex religious, social, and economic institutions, including crusade indulgences , military orders , and the taxation of clerical income . Over time, the crusading movement expanded to include campaigns against pagans , Christian dissidents, and other enemies of the papacy, promoted with similar spiritual rewards and continuing into the 18th century. The Crusade of 1101 , the earliest papally sanctioned expedition inspired by the First Crusade, ended in disastrous defeats. For several decades thereafter, only smaller expeditions reached the Holy Land, yet their role in consolidating and expanding the Crusader states was pivotal. The fall of Edessa , the capital of the first Crusader state, prompted the Second Crusade , which failed in 1148. Its failure reduced support for crusading across Latin Christendom, leaving the Crusader states unable to resist Saladin 's expansion. Having united Egypt and Muslim Syria under his rule, Saladin destroyed their combined armies at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. The Crusader states survived largely owing to the Third Crusade , a major campaign against Saladin, though Jerusalem remained under Muslim control. Initially directed against Egypt, the Fourth Crusade was diverted to the Byzantine Empire, culminating in the Sack of Constantinople and the establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204. The Fifth Crusade again targeted Egypt but failed to conquer it in 1219–21. By this period, crusade indulgences could also be obtained through other campaigns—such as the Iberian , Albigensian , and Northern Crusades —thereby diminishing enthusiasm for expeditions in the eastern Mediterranean. Jerusalem was regained through negotiation during the Sixth Crusade in 1229, and in 1239–41 the Barons' Crusade restored much of the territory the Crusader states had lost. However, the Sack of Jerusalem by Muslim freebooters soon ended Crusader rule in the Holy City. Louis IX of France launched two major campaigns—the Seventh Crusade against Egypt in 1248–51 and the Eighth Crusade against Tunis in 1270—both of which ended in failure. In place of the large-scale passagium generale , the smaller passagium particulare became the predominant form of crusading campaigns in the late 13th century. The Crusader states, however, were unable to withstand the advance of the Mamluks . Having reunited Egypt and Muslim Syria by 1260, they went on to attack the Crusader states, capturing the Crusaders' last mainland strongholds in 1291. Although plans for the reconquest of the Holy Land continued to be made in the following decades, only the Alexandrian Crusade briefly revived crusading activity in the region in 1365. Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Religious wars of the High Middle Ages This article is about the religious wars between the 11th and 13th centuries. For the theoretical, sociological, institutional, military, and financial dimensions of crusading, see Crusading movement . For other uses, see Crusade (disambiguation) and Crusaders (disambiguation) . 14th-century miniature of the Battle of Dorylaeum (1147) , a Second Crusade battle, from the Estoire d'Eracles The Crusades were a series of military campaigns launched by the papacy between 1095 and 1291 against Muslim rulers for the recovery and defence of the Holy Land , as part of a wider crusading movement . The First Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in November 1095—a call to arms for Christians to reconquer Jerusalem from the Muslims, with promises of spiritual reward. By this time, the papacy's position as head of the Catholic Church had strengthened, and earlier conflicts with secular rulers and wars on the frontiers of Western Christendom had prepared it for the direction of armed force in religious causes. The successes of the First Crusade led to the establishment of four Crusader states in the Levant , where their defence required further expeditions from Catholic Europe . The organisation of such large-scale campaigns demanded complex religious, social, and economic institutions, including crusade indulgences , military orders , and the taxation of clerical income . Over time, the crusading movement expanded to include campaigns against pagans , Christian dissidents, and other enemies of the papacy, promoted with similar spiritual rewards and continuing into the 18th century. The Crusade of 1101 , the earliest papally sanctioned expedition inspired by the First Crusade, ended in disastrous defeats. For several decades thereafter, only smaller expeditions reached the Holy Land, yet their role in consolidating and expanding the Crusader states was pivotal. The fall of Edessa , the capital of the first Crusader state, prompted the Second Crusade , which failed in 1148. Its failure reduced support for crusading across Latin Christendom, leaving the Crusader states unable to resist Saladin 's expansion. Having united Egypt and Muslim Syria under his rule, Saladin destroyed their combined armies at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. The Crusader states survived largely owing to the Third Crusade , a major campaign against Saladin, though Jerusalem remained under Muslim control. Initially directed against Egypt, the Fourth Crusade was diverted to the Byzantine Empire, culminating in the Sack of Constantinople and the establishment of the Latin Empire in 1204. The Fifth Crusade again targeted Egypt but failed to conquer it in 1219–21. By this period, crusade indulgences could also be obtained through other campaigns—such as the Iberian , Albigensian , and Northern Crusades —thereby diminishing enthusiasm for expeditions in the eastern Mediterranean. Jerusalem was regained through negotiation during the Sixth Crusade in 1229, and in 1239–41 the Barons' Crusade restored much of the territory the Crusader states had lost. However, the Sack of Jerusalem by Muslim freebooters soon ended Crusader rule in the Holy City. Louis IX of France launched two major campaigns—the Seventh Crusade against Egypt in 1248–51 and the Eighth Crusade against Tunis in 1270—both of which ended in failure. In place of the large-scale passagium generale , the smaller passagium particulare became the predominant form of crusading campaigns in the late 13th century. The Crusader states, however, were unable to withstand the advance of the Mamluks . Having reunited Egypt and Muslim Syria by 1260, they went on to attack the Crusader states, capturing the Crusaders' last mainland strongholds in 1291. Although plans for the reconquest of the Holy Land continued to be made in the following decades, only the Alexandrian Crusade briefly revived crusading activity in the region in 1365. Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Early Muslim conquests",
   "pageid": 2867231,
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   "lead_before": "Expansion of the Islamic state (622–750) Belligerents First Islamic state (until 632) Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) In West Asia and North Africa: Sasanian Empire Byzantine Empire Kingdom of Makuria Kingdom of the Aurès In Central Asia: Western Turkic Khaganate Tang dynasty In South Asia: Chach dynasty In Europe: Visigothic Kingdom Kingdom of Asturias Frankish Kingdom The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( Arabic : الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة , romanized : al-Futūḥāt al-ʾIslāmiyya ), also known as the Arab conquests , were a series of religious wars initiated by Muhammad , the prophet of Islam , and continued by the early Muslims . In 622, he established the first Islamic state at Medina in Arabia , from where Muslim armies expanded rapidly under the succeeding Rashidun Caliphate and then the Umayyad Caliphate , culminating in Islamic law being extended throughout most of West Asia and North Africa , parts of South Asia and Central Asia , and parts of Mediterranean Europe over the following century. According to Scottish historian James Buchan : \"In speed and extent, the first Arab conquests were matched only by those of Alexander the Great , and they were more lasting.\" At the height of the expansion, Muslim-ruled territory under the caliphates is estimated to have covered 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi), stretching from the Indian subcontinent (at Sind ) in the east to the Iberian Peninsula (at the Pyrenees ) in the west. Among other drastic socio-political changes , the early Muslim conquests caused a rupture in the status quo dominated by the Sasanian Empire in the east and the Byzantine Empire in the west; Muslim armies overran the Sasanians and confined the Byzantines , who were left with part of Anatolia and Southeastern Europe . Detailed explanations for the success of the Muslim campaigns have been difficult to discover, largely because only fragmentary sources have survived from the period. American scholar Fred Donner suggests that Muhammad's establishment of the first Islamic state coupled with ideological coherence and mobilization constituted the main factor that propelled his community to successfully establish one of the largest empires in history . Most historians also agree that, as another primary factor that favoured the Muslim war effort, the Sasanians and the Byzantines were rendered militarily and economically exhausted from decades of warfare against each other , with the Sasanian civil war of 628–632 further accelerating political collapse. It is also believed that Jews and some Christians in both Sasanian and Byzantine territory may have been dissatisfied with the state of the two empires and either welcomed or were indifferent to the invading Muslim troops. However, confederations of Arab Christians , such as the Ghassanids , initially allied themselves with the Byzantines. There were also instances of working alliances being established between the Sasanians and the Byzantines in spite of their prior hostilities, such as when they combined forces against the Rashidun army during the Battle of Firaz in 633/634. A significant portion of the lands that the Byzantines lost to Muslim offensives in the Levant and in Egypt had been taken back from Sasanian occupation just a few years earlier. ^ Kaegi (1995) , Donner (2014) ^ Hoyland (2014) , Kennedy (2007) ^ Buchan, James (21 July 2007). \"Children of empire\" . The Guardian . London. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 27 September 2022 . ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads . State University of New York Press . p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7914-1827-7 . ^ Gardner, Hall; Kobtzeff, Oleg, eds. (2012). The Ashgate Research Companion to War: Origins and Prevention . Ashgate Publishing. pp. 208– 209. ^ Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2004). A Short History of the Middle Ages . Ontario: Broadview Press. pp. 71– 72. ISBN 978-1-55111-290-9 . ^ Jandora, John W. (1985). \"The battle of the Yarmūk: A reconstruction\". Journal of Asian History . 19 (1): 8– 21. JSTOR 41930557 . ^ Grant, Reg G. (2011). \"Yarmuk\" . 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History . Universe Pub. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-7893-2233-3 .",
   "lead_after": "Expansion of the Islamic state (622–750) Belligerents First Islamic state (until 632) Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) In West Asia and North Africa: Sasanian Empire Byzantine Empire Kingdom of Makuria Kingdom of the Aurès In Central Asia: Western Turkic Khaganate Tang dynasty In South Asia: Chach dynasty In Europe: Visigothic Kingdom Kingdom of Asturias Frankish Kingdom The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( Arabic : الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة , romanized : al-Futūḥāt al-ʾIslāmiyya ), also known as the Arab conquests , were a series of religious wars initiated by Muhammad , the prophet of Islam , and continued by the early Muslims . In 622, he established the first Islamic state at Medina in Arabia , from where Muslim armies expanded rapidly under the succeeding Rashidun Caliphate and then the Umayyad Caliphate , culminating in Islamic law being extended throughout most of West Asia and North Africa , parts of South Asia and Central Asia , and parts of Mediterranean Europe over the following century. According to Scottish historian James Buchan : \"In speed and extent, the first Arab conquests were matched only by those of Alexander the Great , and they were more lasting.\" At the height of the expansion, Muslim-ruled territory under the caliphates is estimated to have covered 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi), stretching from the Indian subcontinent (at Sind ) in the east to the Iberian Peninsula (at the Pyrenees ) in the west. Among other drastic socio-political changes , the early Muslim conquests caused a rupture in the status quo dominated by the Sasanian Empire in the east and the Byzantine Empire in the west; Muslim armies overran the Sasanians and confined the Byzantines , who were left with part of Anatolia and Southeastern Europe . Detailed explanations for the success of the Muslim campaigns have been difficult to discover, largely because only fragmentary sources have survived from the period. American scholar Fred Donner suggests that Muhammad's establishment of the first Islamic state coupled with ideological coherence and mobilization constituted the main factor that propelled his community to successfully establish one of the largest empires in history . Most historians also agree that, as another primary factor that favoured the Muslim war effort, the Sasanians and the Byzantines were rendered militarily and economically exhausted from decades of warfare against each other , with the Sasanian civil war of 628–632 further accelerating political collapse. It is also believed that Jews and some Christians in both Sasanian and Byzantine territory may have been dissatisfied with the state of the two empires and either welcomed or were indifferent to the invading Muslim troops. However, confederations of Arab Christians , such as the Ghassanids , initially allied themselves with the Byzantines. There were also instances of working alliances being established between the Sasanians and the Byzantines in spite of their prior hostilities, such as when they combined forces against the Rashidun army during the Battle of Firaz in 633/634. A significant portion of the lands that the Byzantines lost to Muslim offensives in the Levant and in Egypt had been taken back from Sasanian occupation just a few years earlier. ^ Kaegi (1995) , Donner (2014) ^ Hoyland (2014) , Kennedy (2007) ^ Buchan, James (21 July 2007). \"Children of empire\" . The Guardian . London. ISSN 0261-3077 . Retrieved 27 September 2022 . ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads . State University of New York Press . p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7914-1827-7 . ^ Gardner, Hall; Kobtzeff, Oleg, eds. (2012). The Ashgate Research Companion to War: Origins and Prevention . Ashgate Publishing. pp. 208– 209. ^ Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2004). A Short History of the Middle Ages . Ontario: Broadview Press. pp. 71– 72. ISBN 978-1-55111-290-9 . ^ Jandora, John W. (1985). \"The battle of the Yarmūk: A reconstruction\". Journal of Asian History . 19 (1): 8– 21. JSTOR 41930557 . ^ Grant, Reg G. (2011). \"Yarmuk\" . 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History . Universe Pub. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-7893-2233-3 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Arab slave trade",
   "pageid": 4810937,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-02T01:12:02Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arab_slave_trade&oldid=1347610420",
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   "lead_before": "A photograph of a slave boy in the Sultanate of Zanzibar . 'An Arab master's punishment for a slight offence.' c. 1890 . From at least the 1860s onwards, photography was a powerful weapon in the abolitionist arsenal. The Arab slave trade is a traditional term that has historically been used to refer to several different slave trades, which have been carried out under the auspices of Arab peoples or Arab societies. The Arab slave trades are often associated or connected to the history of slavery in the Muslim world . The trans-Saharan slave trade relied on networks of all Arab, Berber , and sub-Saharan African merchants. ^ \"Slavery in Zanzibar\" . rmg.co.uk . Greenwich, London, United Kingdom: Royal Museums Greenwich.",
   "lead_after": "A photograph of a slave boy in the Sultanate of Zanzibar . 'An Arab master's punishment for a slight offence.' c. 1890 . From at least the 1860s onwards, photography was a powerful weapon in the abolitionist arsenal. The Arab slave trade is a traditional term that has historically been used to refer to several different slave trades, which have been carried out under the auspices of Arab peoples or Arab societies. The Arab slave trades are often associated or connected to the history of slavery in the Muslim world . The trans-Saharan slave trade relied on networks of all Arab, Berber , and sub-Saharan African merchants. From the 7th century to the 19th century, between 10 to 18 million Africans were enslaved by Arab slave traders. These African slaves were acquired largely through raiding and trade. The slaves were then trafficked through the Sahara desert and the Indian ocean to the Arab world. ^ \"Slavery in Zanzibar\" . rmg.co.uk . Greenwich, London, United Kingdom: Royal Museums Greenwich. ^ \"The forgotten Arab slave trade | D+C - Development + Cooperation\" . www.dandc.eu . 2024-10-27 . Retrieved 2026-07-01 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "History of slavery in the Muslim world",
   "pageid": 47674564,
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   "revid_after": 1362287323,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-02T23:58:12Z",
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&oldid=1362287323",
   "lead_before": "This article is about the history of slavery in Muslim countries. For other uses, see Islam and slavery (disambiguation) . Sale of a child-slave (1872), painting by Vasily Vereshchagin in Turkestan, Russian Empire, Tretyakov Gallery , Moscow . A rich Turkish man examines a naked boy, before buying him . The history of slavery in the Muslim world was throughout the history of Islam with slaves serving in various social and economic roles, from powerful emirs to harshly treated manual laborers. Slaves were widely used in labour in irrigation , mining, and animal husbandry, but most commonly as soldiers, guards, and domestic workers. The use of slaves for hard physical labor early on in Muslim history led to several destructive slave revolts , the most notable being the Zanj Rebellion of 869–883. Many rulers also used slaves in the military and administration to such an extent that slaves could seize power, as did the Mamluks . Most slaves were imported from outside the Muslim world . Slavery in the Muslim world did not have a racial foundation in principle, although this was not always the case in practice. The Arab slave trade was most active in West Asia, North Africa ( Trans-Saharan slave trade ), and Southeast Africa ( Red Sea slave trade and Indian Ocean slave trade ), and rough estimates place the number of Africans enslaved in the twelve centuries prior to the 20th century at between six million to ten million. The Ottoman slave trade came from raids into eastern and central Europe and the Caucasus connected to the Crimean slave trade , while slave traders from the Barbary Coast raided the Mediterranean coasts of Europe and as far afield as the British Isles and Iceland . Historically, Muslim West Asia was more or less united for many centuries, and slavery was hence reflected in the institution of slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate (1258–1517) and slavery in the Ottoman Empire (1517–1922), before slavery was finally abolished in one Muslim country after another during the 20th century. In the 20th century, the authorities in Muslim states gradually outlawed and suppressed slavery. Slavery in Zanzibar was abolished in 1909, when slave concubines were freed, and the open slave market in Morocco was closed in 1922. Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was abolished in 1924 when the new Turkish Constitution disbanded the Imperial Harem and made the last concubines and eunuchs free citizens of the newly proclaimed republic. Slavery in Iran and slavery in Jordan were abolished in 1929. In the Persian Gulf , slavery in Bahrain was first to be abolished in 1937, followed by slavery in Kuwait in 1949 and slavery in Qatar in 1952, while Saudi Arabia and Yemen abolished it in 1962, and Oman followed in 1970. Mauritania became the last state to abolish slavery , in 1981. In 1990, the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam declared that \"no one has the right to enslave\" another human being. As of 2001, however, instances of modern slavery persisted in areas of the Sahel , and several 21st-century terroristic jihadist groups have attempted to use historic slavery in the Muslim world as a pretext for reviving slavery in the 21st century . Scholars point to the various difficulties in studying this amorphous phenomenon which occurs over a large geographic region (between East Africa and West Asia ), a lengthy period of history (from the seventh century to the present day), and which only received greater attention after the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade . The terms \"Arab slave trade\" and \"Islamic slave trade\" (and other similar terms) are invariably used to refer to this phenomenon. ^ Cite error: The named reference RSIBS2001:4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The Truth About Islam and Sex Slavery History Is More Complicated Than You Think\" . HuffPost . 19 August 2015 . Retrieved 13 April 2022 . ^ Slavery in Islam . 7 September 2009. BBC. ^ Bernard Lewis, Race and Color in Islam, Harper and Yuow, 1970, quote on page 38. The brackets are displayed by Lewis. ^ Bacharach, Jere (5 September 2008). \"African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East •\" . Retrieved 22 November 2023 . ^ [Total of Black slave trade in the Muslim world from Sahara, Red Sea and Indian Ocean routes through the 19th century comes to an estimated 10,500,000, \"a figure not far short of the 11,863,000 estimated to have been loaded onto ships during the four centuries of the Atlantic slave trade.\" (Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformation in Slavery (CUP, 1983). ^ Raymond Mauny estimates a total of 6 million Black slaves were traded in Islam through the 20th Century, including 300,000 for part of the 20th century. (p.57, source: \"Les Siecles obscurs de l'Afrique Noire (Paris: Fayard, 1970)] ^ HOCHSCHILD, ADAM (4 March 2001). \"Human Cargo\" . New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 December 2017 . Retrieved 1 September 2015 . Early on in Islam's Black Slaves, his history of slavery in the Muslim world, Ronald Segal cites some estimates. One scholar puts the rough total at 6.5 million slaves during more than a dozen centuries, and another at 10 million. ^ Beigbeder, Yves (2006). Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940–2005) . Leiden : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers . p. 42. ISBN 978-90-04-15329-5 . Historian Roger Botte estimates that Arab slave trade of Africans until the 20th century has involved from 12 to 15 million persons, with the active participation of African leaders. ^ Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam ^ \"BBC – Religions – Islam: Slavery in Islam\" . Archived from the original on 6 October 2018 . Retrieved 30 August 2015 . ^ Martin A. Klein (2002), Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition , p. xxii, ISBN 0810841029 ^ \"University of Minnesota Human Rights Library\" . Archived from the original on 3 November 2018 . Retrieved 25 February 2018 . ^ Segal, Islam's Black Slaves , 1568 : p.206 ^ Segal, Islam's Black Slaves , 2001 : p.222 ^ Miran, J. (2022). Red Sea Slave Trade. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. ^ Emmer, P. (2005). Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, Les Traites Négrières: Essai d'Histoire Globale. Paris: Editions Gallimard, 2004. 468 pp. ISBN 2-07-073499-4 . Itinerario, 29(2), 107–108. ^ Gakunzi, David (2018). \"The Arab-Muslim Slave Trade: Lifting the Taboo\" . Jewish Political Studies Review . 29 (3/4): 40– 42. ISSN 0792-335X . JSTOR 26500685 . ^ Hogg, P. (2014). The African Slave Trade and Its Suppression: A Classified and Annotated Bibliography of Books, Pamphlets and Periodical. Routledge.",
   "lead_after": "This article is about the history of slavery in Muslim countries. For other uses, see Islam and slavery (disambiguation) . Sale of a child-slave (1872), painting by Vasily Vereshchagin in Turkestan, Russian Empire, Tretyakov Gallery , Moscow . A rich Turkish man examines a naked boy, before buying him . The history of slavery in the Muslim world was throughout the history of Islam with slaves serving in various social and economic roles, from powerful emirs to harshly treated manual laborers. Slaves were widely used in labour in irrigation , mining, and animal husbandry, but most commonly as soldiers, guards, and domestic workers. The use of slaves for hard physical labor early on in Muslim history led to several destructive slave revolts , the most notable being the Zanj Rebellion of 869–883. Many rulers also used slaves in the military and administration to such an extent that slaves could seize power, as did the Mamluks . Most slaves were imported from outside the Muslim world . Slavery in the Muslim world did not have a racial foundation in principle, although this was not always the case in practice. The Arab slave trade was most active in West Asia, North Africa ( Trans-Saharan slave trade ), and Southeast Africa ( Red Sea slave trade and Indian Ocean slave trade ), and rough estimates place the number of Africans enslaved in the twelve centuries prior to the 20th century at between six million to ten million. The Ottoman slave trade came from raids into eastern and central Europe and the Caucasus connected to the Crimean slave trade , while slave traders from the Barbary Coast raided the Mediterranean coasts of Europe and as far afield as the British Isles and Iceland . Historically, Muslim West Asia was more or less united for many centuries, and slavery was hence reflected in the institution of slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate (1258–1517) and slavery in the Ottoman Empire (1517–1922), before slavery was finally abolished in one Muslim country after another during the 20th century. In the 20th century, the authorities in Muslim states gradually outlawed and suppressed slavery. Slavery in Zanzibar was abolished in 1909, when slave concubines were freed, and the open slave market in Morocco was closed in 1922. Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was abolished in 1924 when the new Turkish Constitution disbanded the Imperial Harem and made the last concubines and eunuchs free citizens of the newly proclaimed republic. Slavery in Iran and slavery in Jordan were abolished in 1929. In the Persian Gulf , slavery in Bahrain was first to be abolished in 1937, followed by slavery in Kuwait in 1949 and slavery in Qatar in 1952, while Saudi Arabia and Yemen abolished it in 1962, and Oman followed in 1970. Mauritania became the last state to abolish slavery , in 1981. In 1990, the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam declared that \"no one has the right to enslave\" another human being. As of 2001, however, instances of modern slavery persisted in areas of the Sahel , and several 21st-century terroristic jihadist groups have attempted to use historic slavery in the Muslim world as a pretext for reviving slavery in the 21st century . Scholars point to the various difficulties in studying this amorphous phenomenon which occurs over a large geographic region (between East Africa and West Asia ), a lengthy period of history (from the seventh century to the present day), and which only received greater attention after the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade . The terms \"Arab slave trade\" and \"Islamic slave trade\" (and other similar terms) are invariably used to refer to this phenomenon. ^ Cite error: The named reference RSIBS2001:4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"The Truth About Islam and Sex Slavery History Is More Complicated Than You Think\" . HuffPost . 19 August 2015 . Retrieved 13 April 2022 . ^ Slavery in Islam . 7 September 2009. BBC. ^ Bernard Lewis, Race and Color in Islam, Harper and Yuow, 1970, quote on page 38. The brackets are displayed by Lewis. ^ Bacharach, Jere (5 September 2008). \"African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East •\" . Retrieved 22 November 2023 . ^ [Total of Black slave trade in the Muslim world from Sahara, Red Sea and Indian Ocean routes through the 19th century comes to an estimated 10,500,000, \"a figure not far short of the 11,863,000 estimated to have been loaded onto ships during the four centuries of the Atlantic slave trade.\" (Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformation in Slavery (CUP, 1983). ^ Raymond Mauny estimates a total of 6 million Black slaves were traded in Islam through the 20th Century, including 300,000 for part of the 20th century. (p.57, source: \"Les Siecles obscurs de l'Afrique Noire (Paris: Fayard, 1970)] ^ HOCHSCHILD, ADAM (4 March 2001). \"Human Cargo\" . New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 December 2017 . Retrieved 1 September 2015 . Early on in Islam's Black Slaves, his history of slavery in the Muslim world, Ronald Segal cites some estimates. One scholar puts the rough total at 6.5 million slaves during more than a dozen centuries, and another at 10 million. ^ Beigbeder, Yves (2006). Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940–2005) . Leiden : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers . p. 42. ISBN 978-90-04-15329-5 . Historian Roger Botte estimates that Arab slave trade of Africans until the 20th century has involved from 12 to 15 million persons, with the active participation of African leaders. ^ Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam ^ \"BBC – Religions – Islam: Slavery in Islam\" . Archived from the original on 6 October 2018 . Retrieved 30 August 2015 . ^ Martin A. Klein (2002), Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition , p. xxii, ISBN 0810841029 ^ \"University of Minnesota Human Rights Library\" . Archived from the original on 3 November 2018 . Retrieved 25 February 2018 . ^ Segal, Islam's Black Slaves , 1568 : p.206 ^ Segal, Islam's Black Slaves , 2001 : p.222 ^ Miran, J. (2022). Red Sea Slave Trade. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. ^ Emmer, P. (2005). Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, Les Traites Négrières: Essai d'Histoire Globale. Paris: Editions Gallimard, 2004. 468 pp. ISBN 2-07-073499-4 . Itinerario, 29(2), 107–108. ^ Gakunzi, David (2018). \"The Arab-Muslim Slave Trade: Lifting the Taboo\" . Jewish Political Studies Review . 29 (3/4): 40– 42. ISSN 0792-335X . JSTOR 26500685 . ^ Hogg, P. (2014). The African Slave Trade and Its Suppression: A Classified and Annotated Bibliography of Books, Pamphlets and Periodical. Routledge."
  },
  {
   "title": "Islamic State",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamic_State&oldid=1359049369",
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   "lead_before": "Salafi jihadist militant organisation This article is about the modern Salafi jihadist organisation. For the concept of a state based on Islamic law, see Islamic state . Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see ISIL (disambiguation) , Isis (disambiguation) , and Daesh (disambiguation) . Organizational structures Financing Fronting Radicalization ( online ) Training camp Death squad Clandestine cell system Leaderless resistance Lone wolf Domestic Methods Tactics Agro-terrorism Aircraft hijacking list Beheading Guillotine #Reign of Terror Islamic views Salafi Bombing Animal-borne Car list Improvised Letter Proxy Threat Bioterrorism Cyberterrorism Dry run Environmental Hostage-taking Incitement to terrorism Individual terror Insurgency Kidnapping Nuclear Paper Piracy Propaganda of the deed Shooting School Spree Stabbing Stochastic Suicide attack Country categories Rockets and mortars Urban terrorism Vehicle-ramming Relationship to states Response to terrorism v t e The Islamic State ( IS ), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria ( ISIS ), and by its Arabic acronym Daesh , is a transnational Salafi jihadist militant organisation and internationally unrecognised quasi-state . IS occupied a significant amount of territory in Iraq and Syria from 2013 to 2016, but lost most of it between 2017 and 2019. In 2014, the group proclaimed itself to be a worldwide caliphate and claimed religious and political authority over all Muslims worldwide, a claim not accepted by the vast majority of Muslims. It is designated as a terrorist organisation by the United Nations and many countries around the world, including Muslim countries . By the end of 2015, its self-declared caliphate ruled an area with a population of about 12 million, where they enforced their extremist interpretation of Islamic law , managed an annual budget exceeding US$1 billion, and commanded more than 30,000 fighters. After a grinding conflict with American, Iraqi, and Kurdish forces, IS lost control of its Middle Eastern territories by 2019, subsequently reverting to insurgency from remote hideouts while continuing its propaganda efforts . These efforts have garnered a significant following in northern and Sahelian Africa, where IS still controls a significant territory. Originating in the Jaish al-Ta'ifa al-Mansurah founded by Abu Omar al-Baghdadi in 2004, the organisation (primarily under the Islamic State of Iraq name) affiliated itself with al-Qaeda in Iraq and fought alongside them during the 2003–2006 phase of the Iraqi insurgency . The group later changed its name to Islamic State of Iraq and Levant for about a year, before declaring itself to be a worldwide caliphate , called simply the Islamic State ( الدولة الإسلامية , ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyya ). During its rule in Syria and Iraq, the group became notorious for its brutality. It committed genocides against Yazidis and Iraqi Turkmen ; engaged in persecution of Christians , Shia Muslims , and Mandaeans ; publicised videos of beheadings of soldiers, journalists, and aid workers; and destroyed cultural sites . The group has perpetrated terrorist massacres in territories outside of its control, such as the November 2015 Paris attacks , the 2024 Kerman bombings in Iran, the 2024 Crocus City Hall attack in Russia. Lone wolf attacks inspired by the group have also taken place. After 2015, the Iraqi Armed Forces and the Syrian Democratic Forces pushed back IS and degraded its financial and military infrastructure, assisted by advisors, weapons, training, supplies, and airstrikes by the American-led coalition and Iranian proxy forces, and later by Russian airstrikes, bombings, cruise missile attacks , and scorched-earth tactics across Syria, which focused mostly on razing Syrian opposition strongholds rather than IS bases. By March 2019, IS lost the last of its territories in West Asia , although its affiliates maintain a significant territorial presence in Africa as of 2025. ^ Gander, Kashmira (7 July 2015). \"Isis flag: What do the words mean and what are its origins?\" . The Independent . ^ Caillet, Romain (27 December 2013). \"The Islamic State: Leaving al-Qaeda Behind\" . Carnegie Middle East Center . Archived from the original on 20 January 2017. ^ Bunzel, Cole (5 October 2013). \"al-Baghdadi Triumphant\" . Jihadica . Archived from the original on 9 November 2013. ^ Holmes, Oliver (3 February 2014). \"Al Qaeda breaks link with Syrian militant group ISIL\" . Reuters. ^ Pool, Jeffrey (16 December 2004). \"Zarqawi's Pledge of Allegiance to Al-Qaeda: From Mu'Asker Al-Battar, Issue 21\" . Terrorism Monitor . Vol. 2, no. 24. Jamestown Foundation . Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. • \"Al-Qaeda disavows ISIS militants in Syria\" . BBC News. 3 February 2014. ^ Laskar, Rezaul H. (29 January 2015). \"IS announces expansion into AfPak, parts of India\" . Hindustan Times . Archived from the original on 29 January 2015. ^ Elbagir, Nima; Cruickshank, Paul; Tawfeeq, Mohammed (7 March 2015). \"Boko Haram purportedly pledges allegiance to ISIS\" . CNN. ^ Gambhir, Harleen (23 June 2015). \"ISIS Declares Governorate in Russia's North Caucasus Region\" . Institute for the Study of War . Archived from the original on 19 October 2017 . Retrieved 11 March 2025 . ^ Prothero, Mitchell (4 February 2022). \"ISIS Leader Killed in US Raid Was a SNITCH Who Orchestrated the Yazidi Genocide\" . VICE News . Archived from the original on 5 February 2022 . Retrieved 6 February 2022 . ^ \"IS Claims Suicide Bombing on Algerian Military Base in Southern Town of Timiaouine\" . SITE . 11 February 2020. ^ \"IS Delineates 'Khorasan Province' from 'Pakistan Province' in Attack Claims, One Involving Targeted Killing in Rawalpindi\" . Jihadist Threat . SITE Intelligence Group. 24 November 2021. Archived from the original on 18 November 2022 . Retrieved 7 March 2023 . ^ \"Containing Transnational Jihadists in Syria's North West\" . International Crisis Group . 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 6 November 2025 . ^ \"ISIL confirms death of leader Abu Hussein al-Qurashi, names successor\" . Al Jazeera . 3 August 2023 . Retrieved 6 November 2025 . ^ Jared Szuba (20 August 2025). \"US raid kills senior ISIS official near Syria's border with Turkey\" . Al-Monitor . Retrieved 6 November 2025 . ^ \"Syrian army captures Mayadin from ISIS near Deir ez-Zor\" . Rudaw . 14 October 2017. ^ Benhaida, Sarah; al-Rubaye, Ahmad (26 October 2017). \"Iraq forces launch 'last big fight' against IS\" . Rudaw. ^ \"Anti-IS forces converge on Syria border town\" . Agence France-Presse . 4 November 2017 – via Yahoo News. ^ Bussoletti, Francesco (29 June 2018). \"Syria, the Isis pockets of resistance at Deir Ez-Zor are reduced to two\" . Difesa & Sicurezza. ^ Aboufadel, Leith (13 December 2018). \"Breaking: SDF captures Daesh's de facto capital in Syria\" . Archived from the original on 6 July 2019 . Retrieved 10 January 2022 . ^ \"US-backed fighters seize east Syria village from ISIS\" . The National . 16 January 2019. ^ Aboufadel, Leith (24 January 2019). \"ISIL's reign over eastern Euphrates nearing its end – map\" . Al-Masdar News . Archived from the original on 11 November 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2022 . ^ Callimachi, Rukmini (24 January 2019). \"Down to Its Last 2 Villages in Syria, ISIS Still Fights Back\" . The New York Times . ^ Aboufadel, Leith (7 February 2019). \"ISIS squeezed into last areas as SDF troops capture 2 villages east of the Euphrates (MAP)\" . Al-Masdar news. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020 . Retrieved 10 January 2022 . ^ Hussein, Rikar (9 February 2019). \"US-backed Fighters Launch Final Push to Defeat IS in Syria\" . Voice of America . ^ \"US-allied Syrian force declares victory over Islamic State\" . The Washington Post . 23 March 2019. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. ^ Caldwell, Dan (2016). Seeking Security in an Insecure World . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 195. It is a theocratic state that considers itself unbound by the Westphalian principle of sovereignty with its corollaries of nonaggression and nonintervention ^ Poljarevic, Emin (2021). \"Theology of Violence-oriented Takfirism as a Political Theory: The Case of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS)\". In Cusack, Carole M. ; Upal, Muhammad Afzal (eds.). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements . Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion 21. Boston; Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers . pp. 485– 512. doi : 10.1163/9789004435544_026 . ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4 . ISSN 1874-6691 . ^ Manne, Robert (7 November 2016). \"Sayyid Qutb: Father of Salafi Jihadism, Forerunner of the Islamic State\" . ABC Religion & Ethics. Australia: ABC Online . Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Saltman, Erin Marie (3 November 2016). \"The mind of Islamic State: more coherent and consistent than Nazism\" . The Guardian . ISBN 978-1-906603-98-4 . Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. ^ Manne, Robert (2017). Mind of the Islamic state: ISIS and the ideology of the caliphate . Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Prometheus Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-63388-371-0 . ... several scholars have termed the ideology that provided the foundation of the Islamic State 'Qutbism'. ^ Badara, Mohamed; Nagata, Masaki (November 2017). \"Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective\" . Arab Law Quarterly . 31 (4). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers : 305– 335. doi : 10.1163/15730255-12314024 . ISSN 1573-0255 . ^ Bunzel, Cole (March 2015). \"From Paper State to Caliphate: The Ideology of the Islamic State\" (PDF) . The Brookings Project on U.S. Relations with the Islamic World . 19 . Washington, D.C.: Center for Middle East Policy ( Brookings Institution ): 1– 48. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 March 2015 . Retrieved 13 September 2020 . ^ Saltman, Erin Marie; Winter, Charlie (November 2014). Islamic State: The Changing Face of Modern Jihadism (PDF) (Report). Quilliam . ISBN 978-1-906603-98-4 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2015. ^ Wood, Graeme (March 2015). \"What ISIS Really Wants\" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. ^ Crooke, Alastair (30 March 2017) [27 August 2014]. \"You Can't Understand ISIS If You Don't Know the History of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia\" . The Huffington Post . Archived from the original on 28 August 2014. ^ ^ Meleagrou-Hitchens, Alexander; Hughes, Seamus; Clifford, Bennett (2021). \"The Ideologues\" . Homegrown: ISIS in America (1st ed.). London; New York: I. B. Tauris . pp. 111– 148. ISBN 978-1-78831-485-5 . ^ ^ Gerges, Fawaz (2016). \"Introduction\". ISIS: A History . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-691-17000-8 . ^ \"4 years ago: the genocide against the Yazidis in northern Iraq (August 3, 2014)\" . Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker e.V. (GfbV) . Archived from the original on 23 April 2019 . Retrieved 18 May 2019 . ^ Spencer, Richard (14 October 2014). \"Isil carried out massacres and mass sexual enslavement of Yazidis, UN confirms\" . The Daily Telegraph . ISSN 0307-1235 . Archived from the original on 12 February 2019 . Retrieved 18 May 2019 . ^ Taylor, Lin (9 May 2017). \"Nearly 10,000 Yazidis killed, kidnapped by Islamic State in 2014, study finds\" . Reuters . Retrieved 3 May 2021 . ^ ^ Yıldırım, Cihangir (28 July 2015). \"Iraqi MP: ISIS killed hundreds and displaced thousands of Turkmens\" . Daily Sabah . Archived from the original on 14 February 2023 . Retrieved 14 February 2023 . ^ \"ISIS genocide of Yezidis and Christians – Department of Information Technology\" . Kurdistan Regional Government . Archived from the original on 25 January 2023 . Retrieved 14 February 2023 . ^ \"Iraq crisis: Islamic State accused of ethnic cleansing\" . BBC News . 2 September 2014. Archived from the original on 29 September 2024 . Retrieved 19 July 2024 . ^ Cömert, İlhan Yılmaz (12 July 2017). \"IŞİD'ın Irak'ta Türkmen Coğrafyasındaki Katliamları\" [ISIS Massacres in Turkmen Region in Iraq]. 21yyte.org (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 17 October 2023 . Retrieved 10 November 2023 . ^ \"albarlaman aleiraqiu yuetabar jarayim \"daeish\" bihaqi alturkuman 'iibadat jamaeiatan\" البرلمان العراقي يعتبر جرائم \"داعش\" بحق التركمان إبادة جماعية [The Iraqi Parliament considers ISIS crimes against the Turkmen to be genocide]. www.aa.com.tr (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 13 August 2023 . Retrieved 10 November 2023 . ^ \"Iraqi parliament recognizes ISIS persecution of Turkmen as genocide\" . Rudaw Media Network . 20 July 2017. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023 . Retrieved 10 November 2023 . ^ McKay, Hollie (5 March 2021). \"The ISIS War Crime Iraqi Turkmen Won't Talk About\" . New Lines Magazine . Archived from the original on 13 August 2023 . Retrieved 14 February 2023 . ^ Baban, Goran (4 February 2021). \"Turkmen women call to uncover fate of 1300 missing Turkmen abducted by ISIS\" . Kirkuknow . Archived from the original on 16 November 2023 . Retrieved 14 February 2023 . ^ ^ Baele, Stephane J. (October 2019). Giles, Howard (ed.). \"Conspiratorial Narratives in Violent Political Actors' Language\" (PDF) . Journal of Language and Social Psychology . 38 ( 5– 6). SAGE Publications : 706– 734. doi : 10.1177/0261927X19868494 . hdl : 10871/37355 . ISSN 1552-6526 . S2CID 195448888 . Archived from the original on 3 January 2022 . Retrieved 3 January 2022 . ^ Rickenbacher, Daniel (August 2019). Jikeli, Gunther (ed.). \"The Centrality of Anti-Semitism in the Islamic State's Ideology and Its Connection to Anti-Shiism\" . Religions . 10 (8: \"The Return of Religious Antisemitism?\"). Basel, Switzerland: MDPI : 483. doi : 10.3390/rel10080483 . eISSN 2077-1444 . ISSN 2077-1444 . ^ Ghasemi, Faezeh (2020). Anti-Shiism Discourse (PhD). University of Tehran . ^ Rickenbacher, Daniel (2019). \"The Centrality of Anti-Semitism in the Islamic State's Ideology and Its Connection to Anti-Shiism\" . Religions . 10 (8): 483– 492. doi : 10.3390/rel10080483 . ^ Ghasemi, Faezeh (2017). \"Anti-Shiite and Anti-Iranian Discourses in ISIS Texts\" . Discourse . 11 (3): 75– 96. ^ Matthiesen, Toby (21 July 2015). \"The Islamic State Exploits Entrenched Anti-Shia Incitement\" . Sada . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . ^ \"Islamic State claims Pakistan bombing that kills 56 at Shiite mosque\" . ABC News . Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. The Islamic State affiliate in the region known as Islamic State in Khorasan province and headquartered in Afghanistan claimed Friday's devastating attack in a statement translated by the SITE Intelligence group. The statement was posted on the group's Amaq News Agency. The statement identified the attacker as Afghan, posted his picture and said 'Islamic State fighters are constantly targeting Shi'ites living in Pakistan and Afghanistan despite the intense security measures adopted by the Taliban militia and the Pakistani police to secure Shi'a temples and centers.' ^ Rohrlich, Justin (25 March 2022). \"Three ISIS Fanboys Plotted Spring Break Attack on Shia Mosque, Feds Say\" . The Daily Beast . Retrieved 27 March 2022 . ^ ^ Soliman, Muhammad (20 March 2017). \"From Cairo to Berlin: Why is ISIS Targeting Christians?\" . Fikra Forum . The Washington Institute for Near East Policy . ^ Nassif, Hicham Bou (25 July 2014). \"Here Are The Parts Of The Quran That ISIS Uses To Justify Violence Against Iraqi Christians\" . Business Insider. ^ \"Daesh Lay Claim To Target Killing Of Christian, Sikh Men In Peshawar\" . Voice PK . Pakistan. 3 April 2023. Dayal Singh, a Sikh trader, and Kashif Masih, a Christian sanitary worker, were gunned down in different incidents on March 31 and April 1 respectively. Separately, a Hindu ophthalmologist and former senior director of health at the Karachi Metropolitan Corporation (KMC), Dr. Birbal Genani was also shot dead by unknown assailants along the Lyari Expressway in Karachi on March 30. ^ ^ \"ISIS claims responsibility for killing of Hindu priest in Bangladesh\" . The Guardian . 21 February 2016. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. ^ \" 'Hindus need to be targeted in mass numbers in India', says militant in Islamic State magazine\" . Firstpost . 14 April 2016. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. ^ \"ISIS threatens to rid India of Hindus in latest issue of its magazine\" . One India . 14 April 2016. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. ^ \"11 killed in Kabul gurdwara attack, IS claims responsibility\" . The Times of India . 25 March 2020. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. ^ \"ISIS threatens India, Hindus with bloodshed; Claims role in Coimbatore, Mangaluru blasts\" . Hindustan Times . 7 March 2023. ^ \"ISIS claims attack on Sikhs, Hindus in Afghanistan\" . CTV News . 2 July 2018. ^ ^ \"Anti-Gay Rhetoric in English-Language ISIS and Al Qaeda Magazines\" . Anti-Defamation League . 15 June 2016. ^ \"ISIS's Persecution of Gay People\" . Counter Extremism Project . May 2017. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. ^ \"The Islamic State's shocking war on homosexuals\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 17 December 2020. ^ \"What ISIS Is Saying About the Orlando Shooter\" . Vice . 15 June 2016. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. ^ \"ISIS targets gay people using Facebook and phone contacts\" . Global News . Archived from the original on 19 December 2020. ^ \"Inside look at ISIS' brutal persecution of gays\" . CBS News . 2 December 2015. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. ^ \"Amid brazen, deadly attacks, gay Syrians tell of fear of ISIS persecution\" . CNN . 6 March 2015. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. ^ ^ * \"Under Attack, ISIS Threatens Jews and Israel\" . Anti-Defamation League. 13 March 2015. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022 . Retrieved 9 February 2023 . \"ISIS Promotes Murdering Jews in New Online Campaign\" . Anti-Defamation League. 20 October 2015. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. ^ \"Under Attack, ISIS Threatens Jews and Israel\" . Anti-Defamation League. 13 March 2015. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022 . Retrieved 9 February 2023 . ^ \"ISIS Promotes Murdering Jews in New Online Campaign\" . Anti-Defamation League. 20 October 2015. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. ^ \"ISIS calls on operatives to target Jews with chemical weapons\" . The Jerusalem Post . 28 January 2020. ^ \"ISIS threatens Jews, Israel with 'big war' in second Hebrew video\" . The Jerusalem Post . 1 November 2015. ^ \"Turkey arrests ISIS members allegedly targeting Istanbul synagogues\" . Jewish Telegraph Agency . 6 February 2023. ^ \"ISIS Sympathizers Suspected of Bomb Plot on Northern Israeli High School\" . Haaretz . 2 October 2022. ^ \"Islamic State urges attacks against Jews in effort to thwart Trump plan\" . Reuters . 27 January 2020. ^ \"ISIS Plans Attacks on Jewish Children in Turkey\" . Business Insider . 29 March 2016. ^ \"ISIS suspects planned attacks on Jews in Mumbai\" . Wionews . 21 April 2018. ^ \"ISIS Suicide Bombers at Brussels Airport 'Targeted U.S. Airline, Jews' \" . Newsweek . 24 January 2017. The suicide bombers who attacked Brussels airport last year, killing 16 people, were targeting an American airline, its passengers and Jewish people, according to a report citing sources close to the investigation. Another source said that Laachraoui was standing among dozens of students before changing tack and following two Hasidic Jews, usually recognizable by their long beards, sidecurls known as peyot and dark overclothes. 'The attacker seemed to rush towards two Orthodox Jews,' the source said. 'He really, clearly wanted to kill a Jew.' ^ \"Islamic State Unleashes Propaganda Blitz Calling for Attacks Against Jews\" . Vice News . 19 October 2015. The Islamic State released a series of videos Sunday praising attacks against Jews in Israel and encouraging more violence. ^ ^ Cottee, Simon; Bloom, Mia (8 September 2017). \"The Myth of the ISIS Female Suicide Bomber\" . The Atlantic . Retrieved 19 August 2022 . ^ Crockett, Emily (23 May 2017). \"Why Manchester Bomber Targeted Girls\" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 19 August 2022 . ^ \"The Girl Who Beat Isis: My Story review – inside the horror of Isis\" . The Guardian . 1 August 2016 . Retrieved 19 August 2022 . ^ \"Why Women Join ISIS\" . Time . Retrieved 19 August 2022 . ^ ^ \"S/2024/556\" . United Nations . Retrieved 1 August 2024 . ^ \"Eighth report of the Secretary-General on the threat posed by ISIL (Da'esh) to international peace and security and the range of United Nations efforts in support of Member States in countering the threat\" (PDF) . United Nations Security Council . UN. 1 February 2019. ^ \"Operation Inherent Resolve and other overseas contingency operations\" (PDF) . US Department of Defense. 31 December 2018. ^ Cockburn, Patrick (16 November 2014). \"War with Isis: Islamic militants have army of 200,000, claims senior Kurdish leader\" . The Independent . ^ Gartenstein-Ross, Daveed (9 February 2015). \"How many Fighters Does the Islamic State Really Have?\" . War on the Rocks. ^ \"Saddam's former army is secret of Baghdadi's success\" . Reuters. 16 June 2015 . Retrieved 1 July 2015 . ^ \"Briefing With Special Representative for Syria Engagement and Special Envoy for the Global Coalition To Defeat ISIS Ambassador James Jeffrey\" . state.gov . Archived from the original on 7 May 2019 . Retrieved 11 May 2019 . ^ Shinkman, Paul D. (27 December 2017). \"ISIS By the Numbers in 2017\" . U.S. News & World Report . ^ Jones, Seth G.; Dobbins, James; Byman, Daniel; et al. (2017). \"Rolling Back the Islamic State\" . RAND Corporation . Retrieved 1 April 2019 . ^ \"After Shekau: Confronting Jihadists in Nigeria's North East\" . 29 March 2022. ^ Fairfield, Hannah; Wallace, Tim; and Watkins, Derek (21 May 2015). \"How ISIS Expands\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 23 May 2015 . Retrieved 15 September 2020 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference guardian-traincamp was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Saudi Arabia forms Islamic coalition against ISIS\" . CNN. 14 December 2015 . Retrieved 9 January 2025 . ^ Birke, Sarah (5 February 2017). \"How ISIS Rules\" . The New York Review of Books . ^ Gerges, Fawaz A. (2016). ISIS: A History . Princeton University Press. pp. 21– 22. ISBN 978-0-691-17000-8 . ^ \"ISIS far from defeated in Syria: 2019 outlook (maps)\" . Al-Masdar News . 1 January 2019. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020 . Retrieved 7 April 2019 . ^ \"US-Led Allies Finishing Off 'Caliphate' \" . VOA News. 1 March 2019 . Retrieved 7 April 2019 . ^ Brian Carter; Kathryn Tyson; Liam Karr; Peter Mills (17 May 2023). \"Salafi Jihadi Movement Weekly Update, May 17, 2023\" . ISW, Critical Threats . Retrieved 4 January 2024 . ^ Crisis Group 2024 , pp. 2, 6. ^ \"Al-Qaeda in Iraq confirms Syria's Nusra Front is part of its network\" . Al Arabiya . 9 April 2013. Archived from the original on 5 October 2022. ^ Abouzeid, Rania (23 June 2014). \"The Jihad Next Door: The Syrian roots of Iraq's newest civil war\" . Politico . Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. ^ Roggio, Bill (29 June 2014). \"ISIS announces formation of Caliphate, rebrands as 'Islamic State' \" . Long War Journal . ^ Withnall, Adam (29 June 2014). \"Iraq crisis: Isis changes name and declares its territories a new Islamic state with 'restoration of caliphate' in Middle East\" . The Independent . London. ^ \"What is Islamic State?\" . BBC News. 26 September 2014. ^ Airstrikes in Iraq and Syria (Report). US Department of Defense. 9 August 2017. Archived from the original on 16 August 2015. ^ \"Once promised paradise, ISIS fighters end up in mass graves\" . The Straits Times . 15 October 2017 . Retrieved 11 December 2017 . ^ Arango, Tim (13 January 2020). \"Qassim Suleimani, Master of Iran's Intrigue, Built a Shiite Axis of Power in Mideast\" . The New York Times . New York Times . Retrieved 23 May 2026 . \"... that conflict, from 2014 through 2017, was a rare instance of Iran and the United States nominally fighting on the same side. On a number of occasions, Americans were hitting Islamic State targets from the air while General Suleimani was directing ground forces against the militants. {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: url-status ( link ) ^ Bengali, Shashank. \"In Iraq, residents of Amerli celebrate end of militant siege\" . Archived from the original on 5 September 2014. Amerli's teachers, farmers, police officers and white-collar professionals took up arms to defend their homes for nearly three months, but the Islamic State fighters weren't flushed out until Monday, after a major, two-day operation by an unusual partnership of Iraqi and Kurdish soldiers, Iranian-backed Shiite militias and U.S. warplanes. ^ \"42 months of Russian operations on the Syrian territory kill more than 8000 civilians including more than 18150 people in their raids and shelling\" . United Kingdom: Syrian Observatory for Human Rights . 30 March 2019. ^ \"Institute for the Study of War\" . Institute for the Study of War. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Salafi jihadist militant organisation This article is about the modern Salafi jihadist organisation. For the concept of a state based on Islamic law, see Islamic state . Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see ISIL (disambiguation) , Isis (disambiguation) , and Daesh (disambiguation) . Organizational structures Financing Fronting Radicalization ( online ) Training camp Death squad Clandestine cell system Leaderless resistance Lone wolf Domestic Methods Tactics Agro-terrorism Aircraft hijacking list Beheading Guillotine #Reign of Terror Islamic views Salafi Bombing Animal-borne Car list Improvised Letter Proxy Threat Bioterrorism Cyberterrorism Dry run Environmental Hostage-taking Incitement to terrorism Individual terror Insurgency Kidnapping Nuclear Paper Piracy Propaganda of the deed Shooting School Spree Stabbing Stochastic Suicide attack Country categories Rockets and mortars Urban terrorism Vehicle-ramming Relationship to states Response to terrorism v t e The Islamic State ( IS ), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ), the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria ( ISIS ), and by its Arabic acronym Daesh , is a transnational Salafi jihadist militant organisation and internationally unrecognised quasi-state . IS occupied a significant amount of territory in Iraq and Syria from 2013 to 2016, but lost most of it between 2017 and 2019. In 2014, the group proclaimed itself to be a worldwide caliphate and claimed religious and political authority over all Muslims worldwide, a claim not accepted by the vast majority of Muslims. It is designated as a terrorist organisation by the United Nations and many countries around the world, including Muslim countries . By the end of 2015, its self-declared caliphate ruled an area with a population of about 12 million, where they enforced their extremist interpretation of Islamic law , managed an annual budget exceeding US$1 billion, and commanded more than 30,000 fighters. After a grinding conflict with American, Iraqi, and Kurdish forces, IS lost control of its Middle Eastern territories by 2019, subsequently reverting to insurgency from remote hideouts while continuing its propaganda efforts . These efforts have garnered a significant following in northern and Sahelian Africa, where IS still controls a significant territory. Originating in the Jaish al-Ta'ifa al-Mansurah founded by Abu Omar al-Baghdadi in 2004, the organisation (primarily under the Islamic State of Iraq name) affiliated itself with al-Qaeda in Iraq and fought alongside them during the 2003–2006 phase of the Iraqi insurgency . The group later changed its name to Islamic State of Iraq and Levant for about a year, before declaring itself to be a worldwide caliphate , called simply the Islamic State ( الدَّولةُ الإِسْلَامِيَّة , ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyya ). During its rule in Syria and Iraq, the group became notorious for its brutality. It committed genocides against Yazidis and Iraqi Turkmen ; engaged in persecution of Christians , Shia Muslims , and Mandaeans ; publicised videos of beheadings of soldiers, journalists, and aid workers; and destroyed cultural sites . The group has perpetrated terrorist massacres in territories outside of its control, such as the November 2015 Paris attacks , the 2024 Kerman bombings in Iran, the 2024 Crocus City Hall attack in Russia. Lone wolf attacks inspired by the group have also taken place. After 2015, the Iraqi Armed Forces and the Syrian Democratic Forces pushed back IS and degraded its financial and military infrastructure, assisted by advisors, weapons, training, supplies, and airstrikes by the American-led coalition and Iranian proxy forces , and later by Russian airstrikes, bombings, cruise missile attacks , and scorched-earth tactics across Syria, which focused mostly on razing Syrian opposition strongholds rather than IS bases. By March 2019, IS lost the last of its territories in West Asia , although its affiliates maintain a significant territorial presence in Africa as of 2025. ^ Gander, Kashmira (7 July 2015). \"Isis flag: What do the words mean and what are its origins?\" . 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CNN. ^ Gambhir, Harleen (23 June 2015). \"ISIS Declares Governorate in Russia's North Caucasus Region\" . Institute for the Study of War . Archived from the original on 19 October 2017 . Retrieved 11 March 2025 . ^ Prothero, Mitchell (4 February 2022). \"ISIS Leader Killed in US Raid Was a SNITCH Who Orchestrated the Yazidi Genocide\" . VICE News . Archived from the original on 5 February 2022 . Retrieved 6 February 2022 . ^ \"IS Claims Suicide Bombing on Algerian Military Base in Southern Town of Timiaouine\" . SITE . 11 February 2020. ^ \"IS Delineates 'Khorasan Province' from 'Pakistan Province' in Attack Claims, One Involving Targeted Killing in Rawalpindi\" . Jihadist Threat . SITE Intelligence Group. 24 November 2021. Archived from the original on 18 November 2022 . Retrieved 7 March 2023 . ^ \"Containing Transnational Jihadists in Syria's North West\" . International Crisis Group . 7 March 2023 . 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Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. ^ Manne, Robert (2017). Mind of the Islamic state: ISIS and the ideology of the caliphate . Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Prometheus Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-63388-371-0 . ... several scholars have termed the ideology that provided the foundation of the Islamic State 'Qutbism'. ^ Badara, Mohamed; Nagata, Masaki (November 2017). \"Modern Extremist Groups and the Division of the World: A Critique from an Islamic Perspective\" . Arab Law Quarterly . 31 (4). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers : 305– 335. doi : 10.1163/15730255-12314024 . ISSN 1573-0255 . ^ Bunzel, Cole (March 2015). \"From Paper State to Caliphate: The Ideology of the Islamic State\" (PDF) . The Brookings Project on U.S. Relations with the Islamic World . 19 . Washington, D.C.: Center for Middle East Policy ( Brookings Institution ): 1– 48. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 March 2015 . 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The Islamic State affiliate in the region known as Islamic State in Khorasan province and headquartered in Afghanistan claimed Friday's devastating attack in a statement translated by the SITE Intelligence group. The statement was posted on the group's Amaq News Agency. The statement identified the attacker as Afghan, posted his picture and said 'Islamic State fighters are constantly targeting Shi'ites living in Pakistan and Afghanistan despite the intense security measures adopted by the Taliban militia and the Pakistani police to secure Shi'a temples and centers.' ^ Rohrlich, Justin (25 March 2022). \"Three ISIS Fanboys Plotted Spring Break Attack on Shia Mosque, Feds Say\" . The Daily Beast . Retrieved 27 March 2022 . ^ ^ Soliman, Muhammad (20 March 2017). \"From Cairo to Berlin: Why is ISIS Targeting Christians?\" . Fikra Forum . 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Newsweek . 24 January 2017. The suicide bombers who attacked Brussels airport last year, killing 16 people, were targeting an American airline, its passengers and Jewish people, according to a report citing sources close to the investigation. Another source said that Laachraoui was standing among dozens of students before changing tack and following two Hasidic Jews, usually recognizable by their long beards, sidecurls known as peyot and dark overclothes. 'The attacker seemed to rush towards two Orthodox Jews,' the source said. 'He really, clearly wanted to kill a Jew.' ^ \"Islamic State Unleashes Propaganda Blitz Calling for Attacks Against Jews\" . Vice News . 19 October 2015. The Islamic State released a series of videos Sunday praising attacks against Jews in Israel and encouraging more violence. ^ ^ Cottee, Simon; Bloom, Mia (8 September 2017). \"The Myth of the ISIS Female Suicide Bomber\" . The Atlantic . 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Retrieved 15 September 2020 . ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference guardian-traincamp was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Saudi Arabia forms Islamic coalition against ISIS\" . CNN. 14 December 2015 . Retrieved 9 January 2025 . ^ Birke, Sarah (5 February 2017). \"How ISIS Rules\" . The New York Review of Books . ^ Gerges, Fawaz A. (2016). ISIS: A History . Princeton University Press. pp. 21– 22. ISBN 978-0-691-17000-8 . ^ \"ISIS far from defeated in Syria: 2019 outlook (maps)\" . Al-Masdar News . 1 January 2019. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020 . Retrieved 7 April 2019 . ^ \"US-Led Allies Finishing Off 'Caliphate' \" . VOA News. 1 March 2019 . Retrieved 7 April 2019 . ^ Brian Carter; Kathryn Tyson; Liam Karr; Peter Mills (17 May 2023). \"Salafi Jihadi Movement Weekly Update, May 17, 2023\" . ISW, Critical Threats . 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Retrieved 11 December 2017 . ^ Arango, Tim (13 January 2020). \"Qassim Suleimani, Master of Iran's Intrigue, Built a Shiite Axis of Power in Mideast\" . The New York Times . New York Times . Retrieved 23 May 2026 . \"... that conflict, from 2014 through 2017, was a rare instance of Iran and the United States nominally fighting on the same side. On a number of occasions, Americans were hitting Islamic State targets from the air while General Suleimani was directing ground forces against the militants. {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: url-status ( link ) ^ Bengali, Shashank. \"In Iraq, residents of Amerli celebrate end of militant siege\" . Archived from the original on 5 September 2014. Amerli's teachers, farmers, police officers and white-collar professionals took up arms to defend their homes for nearly three months, but the Islamic State fighters weren't flushed out until Monday, after a major, two-day operation by an unusual partnership of Iraqi and Kurdish soldiers, Iranian-backed Shiite militias and U.S. warplanes. ^ \"42 months of Russian operations on the Syrian territory kill more than 8000 civilians including more than 18150 people in their raids and shelling\" . United Kingdom: Syrian Observatory for Human Rights . 30 March 2019. ^ \"Institute for the Study of War\" . Institute for the Study of War. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022 . Retrieved 6 June 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Caliphate",
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caliphate&oldid=1365298378",
   "lead_before": "Islamic form of government \"Caliph\" redirects here. For other uses, see Caliph (disambiguation) and Caliphate (disambiguation) . A caliphate is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph ( / ˈ k æ l ɪ f , ˈ k eɪ -/ ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim world ( ummah ). Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), and the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517). In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate , the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517 until the Ottoman Caliphate was formally abolished as part of the 1924 secularisation of Turkey . The Sharif of Mecca then claimed the title, but this caliphate fell quickly after its conquest by the Sultanate of Nejd (the predecessor of modern-day Saudi Arabia ), leaving the claim in dormancy. Throughout the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all of which were hereditary monarchies , have claimed to be caliphates. Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Shia Muslims , however, believe a caliph should be an imam chosen by God from the Ahl al-Bayt (the 'Household of the Prophet'). Some caliphates in history have been led by Shia Muslims, like the Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171). From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR , the war on terror and the Arab Spring , various Islamist groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims, the most notable example being the Islamic State led by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi which declared a caliphate in its territory in Iraq and Syria in 2014. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Hassan, Mona (2016). \"CONCEPTUALIZING THE CALIPHATE, 632–1517 CE\". Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History . Princeton University Press. pp. 98– 141. doi : 10.2307/j.ctt1q1xrgm.9 . ISBN 978-0-691-16678-0 . JSTOR j.ctt1q1xrgm.9 . ^ March, Andrew F. (2019). The Caliphate of Man: Popular Sovereignty in Modern Islamic Thought . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. doi : 10.2307/j.ctvp2n3ms . ISBN 978-0-674-98783-8 . JSTOR j.ctvp2n3ms . S2CID 204443322 . ^ El-Hibri, Tayeb (2021). The Abbasid Caliphate: A History . Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press . pp. 284–285 . ISBN 978-1-107-18324-7 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Bowering2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Al-Rasheed, Madawi; Kersten, Carool; Shterin, Marat (2012). Demystifying the Caliphate: Historical Memory and Contemporary Contexts . Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-932795-9 . ^ Ringmar, Erik (2020). \"4. The Muslim Caliphates\" . History of International Relations . OBP collection. Open Book Publishers. pp. 73– 100. ISBN 978-1-78374-024-6 . Archived from the original on 7 April 2022 . Retrieved 7 April 2022 . ^ \"The Roots of Democracy in Islam\" . Irfi.org. 16 December 2002. Archived from the original on 22 February 2020 . Retrieved 30 June 2014 .",
   "lead_after": "Islamic form of government \"Caliph\" redirects here. For other uses, see Caliph (disambiguation) and Caliphate (disambiguation) . A caliphate is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph ( / ˈ k æ l ɪ f , ˈ k eɪ -/ ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim world ( ummah ). Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), and the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1517). In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate , the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517 until the Ottoman Caliphate was formally abolished as part of the 1924 secularisation of Turkey . The Sharif of Mecca then claimed the title, but this caliphate fell quickly after its conquest by the Sultanate of Nejd (the predecessor of modern-day Saudi Arabia ), leaving the claim in dormancy. Throughout the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all of which were hereditary monarchies , have claimed to be caliphates. Not all Muslim states have had caliphates. The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Sunni Muslims also believe that according to the prophet Muhammad , the authority of the caliphate remains with the Quraysh tribe. Shia Muslims , however, believe a caliph should be an imam chosen by God from the Ahl al-Bayt (the 'Household of the Prophet'). Some caliphates in history have been led by Shia Muslims, like the Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171). From the late 20th century towards the early 21st century, in the wake of the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR , the war on terror and the Arab Spring , various Islamist groups have claimed the caliphate, although these claims have usually been widely rejected among Muslims, the most notable example being the Islamic State led by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi which declared a caliphate in its territory in Iraq and Syria in 2014. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Hassan, Mona (2016). \"CONCEPTUALIZING THE CALIPHATE, 632–1517 CE\". Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History . Princeton University Press. pp. 98– 141. doi : 10.2307/j.ctt1q1xrgm.9 . ISBN 978-0-691-16678-0 . JSTOR j.ctt1q1xrgm.9 . ^ March, Andrew F. (2019). The Caliphate of Man: Popular Sovereignty in Modern Islamic Thought . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. doi : 10.2307/j.ctvp2n3ms . ISBN 978-0-674-98783-8 . JSTOR j.ctvp2n3ms . S2CID 204443322 . ^ El-Hibri, Tayeb (2021). The Abbasid Caliphate: A History . Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press . pp. 284–285 . ISBN 978-1-107-18324-7 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Bowering2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Al-Rasheed, Madawi; Kersten, Carool; Shterin, Marat (2012). Demystifying the Caliphate: Historical Memory and Contemporary Contexts . Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-932795-9 . ^ Ringmar, Erik (2020). \"4. The Muslim Caliphates\" . History of International Relations . OBP collection. Open Book Publishers. pp. 73– 100. ISBN 978-1-78374-024-6 . Archived from the original on 7 April 2022 . Retrieved 7 April 2022 . ^ \"Al-Khilaafah (the Caliphate) remains within the Quraysh – Sharh as-Sunnah | Dawud Burbank [Audio|En]\" . AbdurRahman.Org. 13 December 2017 . Retrieved 18 July 2026 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: url-status ( link )"
  },
  {
   "title": "Dual loyalty",
   "pageid": 293526,
   "revid_before": 1355778728,
   "revid_after": 1365702482,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-23T23:41:04Z",
   "lead_changed": false,
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dual_loyalty&oldid=1355778728",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dual_loyalty&oldid=1365702482",
   "lead_before": "In politics, loyalty to separate interests that potentially conflict This article is about dual loyalty in politics. For loyalty in ethics, see Dual loyalty (ethics) . In politics , dual loyalty is loyalty to two separate interests that potentially conflict with each other, leading to a conflict of interest . Multiple citizenship has been considered in some countries as dual loyalty. ^ Nyers, Peter, ed. (2009). \"Security, flexible sovereignty, and the perils of multiple citizenship\". Securitizations of Citizenship (0 ed.). Routledge. doi : 10.4324/9780203878903 . ISBN 978-1-134-01257-2 .",
   "lead_after": "In politics, loyalty to separate interests that potentially conflict This article is about dual loyalty in politics. For loyalty in ethics, see Dual loyalty (ethics) . In politics , dual loyalty is loyalty to two separate interests that potentially conflict with each other, leading to a conflict of interest . Multiple citizenship has been considered in some countries as dual loyalty. ^ Nyers, Peter, ed. (2009). \"Security, flexible sovereignty, and the perils of multiple citizenship\". Securitizations of Citizenship (0 ed.). Routledge. doi : 10.4324/9780203878903 . ISBN 978-1-134-01257-2 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Jewish lobby",
   "pageid": 6711193,
   "revid_before": 1359109363,
   "revid_after": 1365119657,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-20T10:50:19Z",
   "lead_changed": true,
   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_lobby&oldid=1359109363",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_lobby&oldid=1365119657",
   "lead_before": "Organized advocacy by Jewish community Not to be confused with Israel lobby . ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The Jewish lobby are individuals and groups predominantly in the Jewish diaspora that advocate for the interests of Jews and Jewish values . The lobby references the involvement and influence of Jews in politics and the political process, and includes organized groups such as the American Jewish Committee , the American Israel Public Affairs Committee , B'nai B'rith , and the Anti-Defamation League . The term Jewish lobby is often conflated with the term Israel lobby , to which some commentators argue against. While there is some overlap in membership between the Jewish lobby and the Israel lobby, the two terms should not be interchangeable, as the Jewish lobby is defined by its ethnic makeup, while the Israel lobby is defined by its political agenda. The term is common in antisemitic contexts, where it is used pejoratively to allege, falsely and without evidence, disproportionate Jewish influence in politics and government, a variation of the old antisemitic canard of \" international Jewish conspiracy \".",
   "lead_after": "Organized advocacy by Jewish community Not to be confused with Israel lobby . ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) The Jewish lobby are individuals and groups predominantly in the Jewish diaspora that advocate for the interests of Jews and Jewish values . The lobby references the involvement and influence of Jews in politics and the political process, and is said to include organized groups such as the American Jewish Committee , the American Israel Public Affairs Committee , B'nai B'rith , and the Anti-Defamation League . Although both terms are controversial, term Jewish lobby is often conflated with the term Israel lobby , which some commentators argue against. While there is some overlap in alleged membership between the Jewish lobby and the Israel lobby, the two terms should not be interchangeable, as the Jewish lobby is defined by its ethnic makeup, while the Israel lobby is defined by its political agenda. The term is common in antisemitic contexts, where it is used pejoratively to allege, falsely and without evidence, disproportionate Jewish influence in politics and government, a variation of the old antisemitic canard of \" international Jewish conspiracy \"."
  },
  {
   "title": "Post-Zionism",
   "pageid": 38802977,
   "revid_before": 1360065932,
   "revid_after": 1364826873,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-18T19:08:12Z",
   "lead_changed": false,
   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Post-Zionism&oldid=1360065932",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Post-Zionism&oldid=1364826873",
   "lead_before": "Idea that Zionism fulfilled its ideological mission with the establishment of Israel ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e Post-Zionism is the opinion of some Israelis , diaspora Jews and others, particularly in academia, that Zionism fulfilled its ideological mission with the formation of the modern State of Israel in 1948, and that Zionist ideology should therefore be considered at an end. The Jewish right also use the term to refer to the Israeli Left in light of the Oslo Accords of 1993 and 1995. Some critics associate post-Zionism with anti-Zionism . ^ \"עלייתה ונפילתה של הפוסט ציונות\" . הארץ (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 30 October 2020 . Retrieved 19 June 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Idea that Zionism fulfilled its ideological mission with the establishment of Israel ( Learn how and when to remove this message ) History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e Post-Zionism is the opinion of some Israelis , diaspora Jews and others, particularly in academia, that Zionism fulfilled its ideological mission with the formation of the modern State of Israel in 1948, and that Zionist ideology should therefore be considered at an end. The Jewish right also use the term to refer to the Israeli Left in light of the Oslo Accords of 1993 and 1995. Some critics associate post-Zionism with anti-Zionism . ^ \"עלייתה ונפילתה של הפוסט ציונות\" . הארץ (in Hebrew). Archived from the original on 30 October 2020 . Retrieved 19 June 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Chosen people",
   "pageid": 497380,
   "revid_before": 1360827047,
   "revid_after": 1365126354,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-20T11:59:00Z",
   "lead_changed": true,
   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chosen_people&oldid=1360827047",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chosen_people&oldid=1365126354",
   "lead_before": "Religious term For the descriptive term in the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, see People of God . Not to be confused with Choson people . Throughout history, various groups of people have seen themselves as the chosen people of a deity , for a particular purpose. The phenomenon of \"chosen people\" is well known among the Israelites and Jews , where the term ( Hebrew : עם סגולה / העם הנבחר , romanized : am segulah / ha-am ha-nivhar ) refers to the Israelites as being selected by Yahweh to worship only him and to fulfill the mission of proclaiming his truth throughout the world. Some claims of chosenness are based on parallel claims of Israelite ancestry, as is the case for the Christian Identity and Black Hebrew sects—both which regard themselves (and not Jews) as the \"true Israel\". Others see the concept as spiritual , whereby individuals who genuinely believe in God are considered to be the \"true\" chosen people, \"the elect\" . This view is common among many Christian denominations which historically believed that the church replaced Israel as the people of God . Anthropologists commonly regard claims of chosenness as a form of ethnocentrism and collective Narcissistic disorder behaviors. The concept of a people favoured or selected by God—summarizable in slogans such as Gott mit uns —can feed into generalised nationalism . ^ \"Chosen People: Judaism\" . Britannica . Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. chosen people the Jewish people, as expressed in the idea that they have been chosen by God as his special people. The term implies that the Jewish people have been chosen by God to worship only him and to fulfill the mission of proclaiming his truth among all the nations of the world. ^ William A. Haviland; Harald E. L. Prins; Dana Walrath; Bunny McBride (2009). The Essence of Anthropology . Cengage Learning. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-495-59981-4 . ^ D. Stanley Eitzen; Maxine Baca Zinn (2003). In conflict and order: understanding society (10th ed.). Pearson. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-205-37622-3 . ^ Smith, D. (2003). Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Hutchison, William R.; Lehmann, Hartmut , eds. (1994). Many are chosen: Divine Election and Western Nationalism . Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress.",
   "lead_after": "Religious term For the descriptive term in the Old Testament or Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, see People of God . Not to be confused with Choson people . Throughout history, various groups of people have seen themselves as the chosen people of a deity , for a particular purpose. The phenomenon of \"chosen people\" is well known among the Israelites and Jews , where the term ( Hebrew : עם סגולה / העם הנבחר , romanized : am segulah / ha-am ha-nivhar ) refers to the Israelites as being selected by Yahweh to worship only him and to fulfill the mission of proclaiming his truth throughout the world. Some claims of chosenness are based on parallel claims of Israelite ancestry, as is the case for the Christian Identity and Black Hebrew Israelite sects—both which regard themselves (and not Jews) as the \"true Israel\". Others see the concept as spiritual , whereby individuals who genuinely believe in God are considered to be the \"true\" chosen people, \"the elect\" . This view is common among many Christian denominations which historically believed that the church replaced Israel as the people of God . Anthropologists commonly regard claims of chosenness as a form of ethnocentrism . The concept of a people favoured or selected by God—summarizable in slogans such as Gott mit uns —can feed into generalised nationalism . ^ \"Chosen People: Judaism\" . Britannica . Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. chosen people the Jewish people, as expressed in the idea that they have been chosen by God as his special people. The term implies that the Jewish people have been chosen by God to worship only him and to fulfill the mission of proclaiming his truth among all the nations of the world. ^ William A. Haviland; Harald E. L. Prins; Dana Walrath; Bunny McBride (2009). The Essence of Anthropology . Cengage Learning. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-495-59981-4 . ^ D. Stanley Eitzen; Maxine Baca Zinn (2003). In conflict and order: understanding society (10th ed.). Pearson. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-205-37622-3 . ^ Smith, D. (2003). Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity . Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Hutchison, William R.; Lehmann, Hartmut , eds. (1994). Many are chosen: Divine Election and Western Nationalism . Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress."
  },
  {
   "title": "Jewish peoplehood",
   "pageid": 26373176,
   "revid_before": 1361107673,
   "revid_after": 1364056773,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-14T05:56:38Z",
   "lead_changed": true,
   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_peoplehood&oldid=1361107673",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jewish_peoplehood&oldid=1364056773",
   "lead_before": "Jews as a people \"People of Israel\" redirects here. For the people who live in modern-day Israel, see Israelis . History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e Jewish peoplehood ( Hebrew : עמיות יהודית, Amiut Yehudit ), also sometimes referred to as the whole of Israel ( Hebrew : or עמ ישראל Am Yisrael , meaning the overall Jewish people, not people of modern-day Israel, or כלל ישראל Klal Yisrael ), is the concept of the Jewish people as a collective and the sense of belonging across religious, geographic, cultural, and political differences. The concept describes Jews as an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the ancient Israelites and also the bonds that connect Jews through shared ancestry, history, traditions, and communal ties. Even though it's rooted in Jewish religious and historical traditions, Jewish peoplehood has also been developed in modern Jewish thought as a framework for understanding Jewish collective identity and the relationship between Jews in Israel and Jews in the diaspora . Scholars and leaders interpreted Jewish peoplehood as deriving from a shared destiny, mission, kinship, mutual responsibility, or obligation, and have debated its relationship to Jewish nationhood and Zionism . ^ Perlberger, Hanna (January 11, 2020). \"Sharing the Secret to Jewish Unity\" . Chabad.org . Retrieved May 3, 2024 . ^ Ravid, Shlomi. \"What is Jewish Peoplehood? And is it the Right Question? From Defining Peoplehood to Creating Peoplehood Capital\" (PDF) .",
   "lead_after": "Jews as a people \"People of Israel\" redirects here. For the people who live in modern-day Israel, see Israelis . History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e Jewish peoplehood ( Hebrew : עמיות יהודית, Amiut Yehudit ), also sometimes referred to as the whole of Israel ( Hebrew : or עם ישראל Am Yisrael , meaning the overall Jewish people, not people of modern-day Israel, or כלל ישראל Klal Yisrael ), is the concept of the Jewish people as a collective and the sense of belonging across religious, geographic, cultural, and political differences. The concept describes Jews as an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the ancient Israelites and also the bonds that connect Jews through shared ancestry, history, traditions, and communal ties. Even though it's rooted in Jewish religious and historical traditions, Jewish peoplehood has also been developed in modern Jewish thought as a framework for understanding Jewish collective identity and the relationship between Jews in Israel and Jews in the diaspora . Scholars and leaders interpreted Jewish peoplehood as deriving from a shared destiny, mission, kinship, mutual responsibility, or obligation, and have debated its relationship to Jewish nationhood and Zionism . ^ Perlberger, Hanna (January 11, 2020). \"Sharing the Secret to Jewish Unity\" . Chabad.org . Retrieved May 3, 2024 . ^ Ravid, Shlomi. \"What is Jewish Peoplehood? And is it the Right Question? From Defining Peoplehood to Creating Peoplehood Capital\" (PDF) ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Who is a Jew?",
   "pageid": 1040159,
   "revid_before": 1357169201,
   "revid_after": 1366223804,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-26T22:56:07Z",
   "lead_changed": false,
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Who_is_a_Jew%3F&oldid=1357169201",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Who_is_a_Jew%3F&oldid=1366223804",
   "lead_before": "Basic question about Jewish identity \"מיהו יהודי\" redirects here. For the catchphrase, see Who's Yehoodi? History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e \" Who is a Jew? \" ( Hebrew : מיהו יהודי , romanized : mihu yehudi , pronounced [ˈmi(h)u je(h)uˈdi] ) is a basic question about Jewish identity and considerations of Jewish self-identification . The question pertains to ideas about Jewish personhood, which have cultural , ethnic , religious , political , genealogical , and personal dimensions. Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism follow Jewish law ( halakha ), deeming people to be Jewish if their mothers are Jewish or if they underwent a halakhic conversion . Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism accept both matrilineal and patrilineal descent as well as conversion. Karaite Judaism predominantly follows patrilineal descent as well as conversion. Jewish identity is also commonly defined through ethnicity . Opinion polls have suggested that the majority of modern Jews see being Jewish as predominantly a matter of ancestry and culture, rather than religion. There is controversy over Jewish identification in Israel, as it affects citizenship and personal status issues like marriage. Israel's Law of Return grants citizenship to those with a Jewish parent or grandparent, even if not religious. But the rabbinical courts use halakhic rules for marriage, requiring Orthodox conversions for those without a Jewish mother. This creates conflicts between different branches of Judaism. The Nazis defined Jews based on their ancestry and persecuted them on a racial basis . Jews themselves have varying self-definitions, ranging from religious observance to secular ethnic identity. There is no consensus, but common themes emphasize ancestry, culture, and community belonging, even for secular Jews and converts to other religions. ^ Micheal Lipka (March 16, 2016). \"A closer look at Jewish identity in Israel and the U.S.\" Pew Research Center. ^ \"Poll: Many Israelis see Jewish identity as being self-defined – Israel News – Jerusalem Post\" . www.jpost.com . September 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 5, 2019 .",
   "lead_after": "Basic question about Jewish identity \"מיהו יהודי\" redirects here. For the catchphrase, see Who's Yehoodi? History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e \" Who is a Jew? \" ( Hebrew : מיהו יהודי , romanized : mihu yehudi , pronounced [ˈmi(h)u je(h)uˈdi] ) is a basic question about Jewish identity and considerations of Jewish self-identification . The question pertains to ideas about Jewish personhood, which have cultural , ethnic , religious , political , genealogical , and personal dimensions. Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism follow Jewish law ( halakha ), deeming people to be Jewish if their mothers are Jewish or if they underwent a halakhic conversion . Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism accept both matrilineal and patrilineal descent as well as conversion. Karaite Judaism predominantly follows patrilineal descent as well as conversion. Jewish identity is also commonly defined through ethnicity . Opinion polls have suggested that the majority of modern Jews see being Jewish as predominantly a matter of ancestry and culture, rather than religion. There is controversy over Jewish identification in Israel, as it affects citizenship and personal status issues like marriage. Israel's Law of Return grants citizenship to those with a Jewish parent or grandparent, even if not religious. But the rabbinical courts use halakhic rules for marriage, requiring Orthodox conversions for those without a Jewish mother. This creates conflicts between different branches of Judaism. The Nazis defined Jews based on their ancestry and persecuted them on a racial basis . Jews themselves have varying self-definitions, ranging from religious observance to secular ethnic identity. There is no consensus, but common themes emphasize ancestry, culture, and community belonging, even for secular Jews and converts to other religions. ^ Micheal Lipka (March 16, 2016). \"A closer look at Jewish identity in Israel and the U.S.\" Pew Research Center. ^ \"Poll: Many Israelis see Jewish identity as being self-defined – Israel News – Jerusalem Post\" . www.jpost.com . September 17, 2014 . Retrieved September 5, 2019 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Antisemitism in the United States",
   "pageid": 16988965,
   "revid_before": 1361276202,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-29T21:55:03Z",
   "lead_changed": true,
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antisemitism_in_the_United_States&oldid=1361276202",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antisemitism_in_the_United_States&oldid=1366735226",
   "lead_before": "Antisemitism in the United States describes incidents of hatred, hostility, harm, prejudice or discrimination against people identifying as Jews, religiously, culturally and/or ethnically within the United States of America . It typically includes: Attitudes, including those of organized hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and those more widely disseminated in the population; Behaviors that can threaten the security of American Jews , as measured by the occurrence of specific incidents, including hate crimes ; and Discrimination against Jews, threatening their security. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) data shows that in every year since 1991, Jews were the most frequent targets of religiously motivated hate crimes even though current numbers may be underreported, as is the case for many other targeted groups. As of 2023, the FBI calculated that antisemitic incidents accounted for 68% of all religion-based hate crimes, an increase of 63% since 2022, while the American Jewish Committee (AJC) said that figure was \"likely much lower\" than the actual number as hate crimes had been \"widely underreported across the country.\" A 2025 survey conducted by the Anti-Defamation League , concluded that \"60% of Americans ... at least somewhat agree that antisemitism is a serious problem.\" Twenty-four percent of Americans, however, maintained that recent antisemitic attacks were understandable. In the past, incidents of antisemitism were mostly confined to organized antisemitic groups, mainly from a white nationalist or white supremacist backgrounds, but also including the Nation of Islam and some branches of the Black Hebrew Israelites , who have also been identified as antisemitic, reflecting heightened levels of antisemitism among some African-American communities. Over the last decade or more, however, antisemitism has been rising in the U.S., and there has been increasing evidence of antisemitism on both sides of the American political spectrum, as Ambassador Deborah Lipstadt , Special Envoy to Monitor and Combat Antisemitism for the U.S. Department of State highlighted in the title of remarks she gave in 2024: \"From Right to Left and In Between: Jew-hatred Across the Political Divide.\" In 2024, the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) also summarized their latest findings on the subject in Antisemitism . On the left, they noted an increase in incidents \"that began with the Oct. 7, 2023, attacks that initiated the Israel—Hamas war. These incidents included vandalism of Jewish institutions and places of worship, flyering from known hate groups, and assaults on Jewish people and business.\" On the right, they found that \"Hate groups and other bigoted actors have perpetuated the antisemitic narrative that Jewish people are helping to further the normalization and acceptance of LGBTQ+ identities in order to further social strife.\" Likewise, the far right argues that Jews are orchestrating a \" great replacement \" in which they aid the immigration of non-white people — especially those who are Muslim — into majority-white counties to challenge and erode white supremacy.\" There have been a range of approaches to combating antisemitism, both by government when the Biden administration launched the U.S. National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism and by Jewish communities whose tactics have included the creation of more holocaust museums. Nonetheless, incidents of antisemitism continue to rise in the U.S. and worldwide. One result, according to Gallop, is \"most Jewish Americans have felt reluctant to share their religious affiliation.\" ^ \"ADL Urges Action After FBI Reports Jews Were Target of Most Religion-Based Hate Crimes in 2018\" . Anti-Defamation League . ^ Pink, Aiden (August 17, 2020). \"Colleges express outrage about anti-Semitism— but fail to report it as a crime\" . The Forward . Retrieved February 9, 2021 . ^ \"AJC Warns: Staggering FBI Hate Crimes Data Likely Represents Under-Reporting of Anti-Jewish Hate Crimes\" . American Jewish Committee . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 10, 2024 . With the FBI reporting that hate crimes against Jews increased a staggering 63% year over year, from 1,124 in 2022 to 1,832 in 2023, AJC recognizes that the actual numbers of incidents is likely greater, as hate crimes are widely underreported across the country. Despite Jews only accounting for 2% of the U.S. population, the community was the target of 68% of religiously motivated hate crimes committed in 2023. \"Jewish community most targeted religious group, new FBI hate crime report says\" . The Jerusalem Post . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 10, 2024 . \"Despite Jews only accounting for 2% of the US population, the community was the target of 68% of religiously motivated hate crimes committed in 2023,\" AJC said in a statement. \"New FBI Data Reflects Record-High Number of Anti-Jewish Hate Crimes\" . Anti-Defamation League . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 10, 2024 . Although Jews only make up around 2 percent of the U.S. population, reported single-bias anti-Jewish hate crimes comprised 15 percent of all hate crimes and 68 percent of all reported religion-based hate crimes in 2023, which is consistent with patterns from prior years. \"Antisemitic hate crimes in US surged 63% in 2023, to all-time high of 1,832 – FBI\" . The Times of Israel . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 10, 2024 . Antisemitic incidents were 15% of all hate crimes in 2023, and 68% of all religion-based hate crimes, according to the data — even though Jews only make up some 2% of the US population. \"FBI reports record-high antisemitic hate crimes in 2023, up 63% from 2022\" . Jewish Insider . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 6, 2024 . ^ \"Substantial Number of Americans Justify or Excuse Violence Against Jews, New ADL Survey Finds | ADL\" . www.adl.org . Retrieved December 28, 2025 . ^ Lipstadt, Deborah (February 21, 2024). \"From Right to Left and In Between: Jew-hatred Across the Political Divide\" . U.S. Department of State . ^ SPLC. \"Antisemitism\" . Southern Poverty Law Center . Retrieved January 26, 2026 . ^ Horn, Dara (April 3, 2023). \"Is Holocaust Education Making Anti-Semitism Worse?\" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Retrieved January 27, 2026 . ^ Levitt, Michael (December 15, 2025). \"What we know about the rise in antisemitic attacks in Australia and around the world\" . NPR . Retrieved January 27, 2026 . ^ \"Americans Show Heightened Concern About Antisemitism\" . Gallup.com . July 1, 2024 . Retrieved January 27, 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Antisemitism in the United States describes incidents of hatred, hostility, harm, prejudice or discrimination against people identifying as Jews, religiously, culturally and/or ethnically within the United States of America . It typically includes: Attitudes, including those of organized hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan , Neo-Nazi Organizations , Nation of Islam and those more widely disseminated in the population; Behaviors that can threaten the security of American Jews , as measured by the occurrence of specific incidents, including hate crimes ; and Discrimination against Jews, threatening their security. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) data shows that in every year since 1991, Jews were the most frequent targets of religiously motivated hate crimes even though current numbers may be underreported, as is the case for many other targeted groups. As of 2023, the FBI calculated that antisemitic incidents accounted for 68% of all religion-based hate crimes, an increase of 63% since 2022, while the American Jewish Committee (AJC) said that figure was \"likely much lower\" than the actual number as hate crimes had been \"widely underreported across the country.\" A 2025 survey conducted by the Anti-Defamation League , concluded that \"60% of Americans ... at least somewhat agree that antisemitism is a serious problem.\" Twenty-four percent of Americans, however, maintained that recent antisemitic attacks were understandable. In the past, incidents of antisemitism were mostly confined to organized antisemitic groups, mainly from a white nationalist or white supremacist backgrounds, but also including the Nation of Islam and some branches of the Black Hebrew Israelites , who have also been identified as antisemitic, reflecting heightened levels of antisemitism among some African-American communities. Over the last decade or more, however, antisemitism has been rising in the U.S., and there has been increasing evidence of antisemitism on both sides of the American political spectrum, as Ambassador Deborah Lipstadt , Special Envoy to Monitor and Combat Antisemitism for the U.S. Department of State highlighted in the title of remarks she gave in 2024: \"From Right to Left and In Between: Jew-hatred Across the Political Divide.\" In 2024, the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) also summarized their latest findings on the subject in Antisemitism . On the left, they noted an increase in incidents \"that began with the Oct. 7, 2023, attacks that initiated the Israel—Hamas war. These incidents included vandalism of Jewish institutions and places of worship, flyering from known hate groups, and assaults on Jewish people and business.\" On the right, they found that \"Hate groups and other bigoted actors have perpetuated the antisemitic narrative that Jewish people are helping to further the normalization and acceptance of LGBTQ+ identities in order to further social strife.\" Likewise, the far right argues that Jews are orchestrating a \" great replacement \" in which they aid the immigration of non-white people — especially those who are Muslim — into majority-white counties to challenge and erode white supremacy.\" There have been a range of approaches to combating antisemitism, both by government when the Biden administration launched the U.S. National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism and by Jewish communities whose tactics have included the creation of more holocaust museums. Nonetheless, incidents of antisemitism continue to rise in the U.S. and worldwide. One result, according to Gallop, is \"most Jewish Americans have felt reluctant to share their religious affiliation.\" ^ \"ADL Urges Action After FBI Reports Jews Were Target of Most Religion-Based Hate Crimes in 2018\" . Anti-Defamation League . ^ Pink, Aiden (August 17, 2020). \"Colleges express outrage about anti-Semitism— but fail to report it as a crime\" . The Forward . Retrieved February 9, 2021 . ^ \"AJC Warns: Staggering FBI Hate Crimes Data Likely Represents Under-Reporting of Anti-Jewish Hate Crimes\" . American Jewish Committee . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 10, 2024 . With the FBI reporting that hate crimes against Jews increased a staggering 63% year over year, from 1,124 in 2022 to 1,832 in 2023, AJC recognizes that the actual numbers of incidents is likely greater, as hate crimes are widely underreported across the country. Despite Jews only accounting for 2% of the U.S. population, the community was the target of 68% of religiously motivated hate crimes committed in 2023. \"Jewish community most targeted religious group, new FBI hate crime report says\" . The Jerusalem Post . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 10, 2024 . \"Despite Jews only accounting for 2% of the US population, the community was the target of 68% of religiously motivated hate crimes committed in 2023,\" AJC said in a statement. \"New FBI Data Reflects Record-High Number of Anti-Jewish Hate Crimes\" . Anti-Defamation League . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 10, 2024 . Although Jews only make up around 2 percent of the U.S. population, reported single-bias anti-Jewish hate crimes comprised 15 percent of all hate crimes and 68 percent of all reported religion-based hate crimes in 2023, which is consistent with patterns from prior years. \"Antisemitic hate crimes in US surged 63% in 2023, to all-time high of 1,832 – FBI\" . The Times of Israel . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 10, 2024 . Antisemitic incidents were 15% of all hate crimes in 2023, and 68% of all religion-based hate crimes, according to the data — even though Jews only make up some 2% of the US population. \"FBI reports record-high antisemitic hate crimes in 2023, up 63% from 2022\" . Jewish Insider . September 23, 2024 . Retrieved October 6, 2024 . ^ \"Substantial Number of Americans Justify or Excuse Violence Against Jews, New ADL Survey Finds | ADL\" . www.adl.org . Retrieved December 28, 2025 . ^ Lipstadt, Deborah (February 21, 2024). \"From Right to Left and In Between: Jew-hatred Across the Political Divide\" . U.S. Department of State . ^ SPLC. \"Antisemitism\" . Southern Poverty Law Center . Retrieved January 26, 2026 . ^ Horn, Dara (April 3, 2023). \"Is Holocaust Education Making Anti-Semitism Worse?\" . The Atlantic . ISSN 2151-9463 . Retrieved January 27, 2026 . ^ Levitt, Michael (December 15, 2025). \"What we know about the rise in antisemitic attacks in Australia and around the world\" . NPR . Retrieved January 27, 2026 . ^ \"Americans Show Heightened Concern About Antisemitism\" . Gallup.com . July 1, 2024 . Retrieved January 27, 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Lehi (militant group)",
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   "lead_before": "Zionist paramilitary organization (1940–1948) Lehi ( Hebrew pronunciation: [ˈleχi] ; Hebrew : לח״י , sometimes abbreviated \"LHI\"), officially the Fighters for the Freedom of Israel (Hebrew: לוחמי חרות ישראל , romanized: Lohamei Herut Israel ) and often known pejoratively as the Stern Gang , was a Zionist paramilitary militant organization founded by Avraham (\"Yair\") Stern in Mandatory Palestine in 1940. Its avowed aim was to evict the British authorities from Palestine by use of violence, allowing unrestricted immigration of Jews and the formation of a Jewish state. It was initially called the National Military Organization in Israel , upon being founded in August 1940, and considered its actions as necessary for achieving its national aims. Lehi split from the Irgun militant group in 1940 in order to continue fighting the British during World War II . It initially sought an alliance with Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany . Believing that Nazi Germany was a lesser enemy of the Jews than Britain, Lehi twice attempted to form an alliance with the Nazis, proposing a Jewish state based on \"nationalist and totalitarian principles, and linked to the German Reich by an alliance\". After Stern's death in 1942, the new leadership of Lehi began to move towards support for Joseph Stalin 's Soviet Union and the ideology of National Bolshevism , which was considered an amalgam of both right and left. Regarding themselves as \"revolutionary Socialists\", the new Lehi developed a highly original ideology combining an \"almost mystical\" belief in Greater Israel with support for the Arab liberation struggle. This sophisticated ideology failed to gain public support and Lehi fared poorly in the first Israeli elections . In April 1948, Lehi and the Irgun were jointly responsible for the massacre in Deir Yassin of at least 107 Palestinian Arab villagers, including women and children. Lehi assassinated Lord Moyne , British Minister Resident in the Middle East, and made many other attacks on the British in Palestine. On 29 May 1948, the government of Israel, having inducted its activist members into the Israel Defense Forces , formally disbanded Lehi, though some of its members carried out one more terrorist act, the assassination of Folke Bernadotte some months later, an act condemned by Bernadotte's replacement as mediator, Ralph Bunche . After the assassination, the new Israeli government declared Lehi a terrorist organization, arresting some 200 members and convicting some of the leaders. Just before the first Israeli elections in January 1949, a general amnesty to Lehi members was granted by the government. In 1980, Israel instituted a military decoration, an \"award for activity in the struggle for the establishment of Israel\", the Lehi ribbon . Former Lehi leader Yitzhak Shamir became Prime Minister of Israel in 1983. ^ \"סמל לח״י\" . Archived from the original on 18 May 2020 . Retrieved 12 September 2019 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Nachman Ben-Yehuda 1995. Pp. 322 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Yitzhak Shamir, Israel's modest, hardline ex-PM, dies at 96\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 17 May 2023 . Retrieved 18 June 2023 . ^ Khalidi, 1971, p. 606. ^ Cmd. 6873. ^ Pedahzur, Ami (2013). The Israeli Response to Jewish Extremism and Violence . Manchester University Press. Of the movements associated with ultranationalist right-wing notions, the Etzel and the Lehi were the most noteworthy in their use of violence and terrorism ^ Sprinzak, Ehud (1991). The Ascendance of Israel's Radical Right . OUP. p. 23. It was the ultranationalist wing of Revisionism, and was articulated by organizations such as Brit Habirionim and Lehi ^ ^ Heller, Joseph (1995). The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940–49 . Frank Cass. p. 86. ISBN 0-7146-4558-3 . ^ Shlaim, Avi (1996). \"Review: The Likud in Power: The Historiography of Revisionist Zionism\" . Israel Studies . 1 (2): 278– 93. doi : 10.2979/ISR.1996.1.2.278 . JSTOR 30245501 . ^ ^ Shapira, Anita (1999). Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881-1948 . Stanford University Press. p. 347. ISBN 0804737762 . ^ The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940-1949 Joseph Heller page 114 \"Above all, in the summer of 1943 Lehi had still not broken free from the doctrine of persecutor and enemy'. Even after the extent of the Holocaust was revealed, Lehi refused to depict Hitler rather than England as the main foe.\" ^ Jabotinsky and the Revisionist Movement 1925–1948. Yaacov Shavit, Routledge; 1st ed., 1988) p. 231 \"Articles in contemporary Lehi publications talked about the Jewish nation as a heroic people, even a 'master race' (in contrast to the Arabs, who were considered a nation of slaves)\" ^ Schulz 2003 , p. 28, \"The most stark example is Deir Yasin, carved into the memory of Palestinian suffering. The Deir Yasin massacre, conducted by a joint IZL — LHI operation with the reluctant, but nevertheless given, consent of the Haganah , was the one event that had the most immediate effect upon flight. The attack was connected to an operation intended to secure the western entrance to Jerusalem ( ibid .: 113). The atrocities that were committed in the event, in which 250 villagers were massacred and scores of others subject to rape, torture and mutilation, contributed to the spread of panic among Palestine's Arabs ( ibid .: 113f.). Deir Yasin came to serve as a representation of what Jewish forces (irregular or not) might be capable of. Deir Yasin continues to stand out as a symbol of the nakba and the main focal point in remembering the catastrophe.\" harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchulz2003 ( help ) ^ Ghanim 2018 , pp. 106–108, \"[p. 106] The “ten-day series” refers to a series of operations undertaken by the Zionist forces lasting from the eight until the eighteenth of July, 1948, during which many operations to expel inhabitants and seize villages took place ... [p. 107] During the “ten days,” the Etzioni Brigade attacked the villages located south of Jerusalem alongside forces from the Lehi and Etzel brigades, who had already committed the massacre of Deir Yassin in April 1948 ... Operation Danny, which took place between the ninth and seventeenth of July, 1948 was one of the most significant operations of the “ten days,” during which both Lydda and Ramla fell on the twelfth and thirteenth of July as well as villages south of Jerusalem. The fall of Lydda and Ramla (and the implications of these events), whereby the residents were systematically expelled and prevented by armed force from returning to their villages and cities, constituted one of the most tragic moments of the war for Palestinians ... Lydda also witnessed the Dahmash Massacre, during which tens of Palestinians who were gathered in the Dahmash mosque were terminated ... [p. 108] fifty thousand residents of Lydda and Ramla were expelled after being terrorized.\" harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGhanim2018 ( help ) ^ ^ Heller, Joseph (1995). \"The Zionist Right and National Liberation: From Jabotinsky to Avraham Stern\". In Wistrich, Robert S. ; Ohana, David (eds.). The Shaping of Israeli Identity: Myth, Memory, and Trauma . Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-714-64641-1 . ^ Sasson Sofer. Zionism and the Foundations of Israeli Diplomacy . Cambridge University Press, 2007. pp. 254. \"Lehi's leader Stern stated that he incorporated elements of both the left and the right.\" ^ \"This group was known to its friends as LEHI and to its enemies as the Stern Gang.\" Blumberg, Arnold. History of Israel , Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated, 1998. p 106. ^ \"calling themselves Lohamei Herut Yisrael (LHI) or, less generously, the Stern Gang.\" Lozowick, Yaacov. Right to Exist : A Moral Defense of Israel's Wars . Westminster, MD: Doubleday Publishing, 2003. p. 78. ^ \" It ended in a split with Stern leading his own group out of the Irgun. This was known pejoratively by the British as \"the Stern Gang' – later as Lehi \" Shindler, Colin. Triumph of Military Zionism : Nationalism and the Origins of the Israeli Right . London, GBR: I.B. Tauris & Company, Ltd., 2005. p. 218. ^ \" Known by their Hebrew acronym as LEHI they were more familiar, not to say notorious, to the rest of the world as the Stern Gang – a ferociously effective and murderous terrorist group fighting to end British rule in Palestine and establish a Jewish state. \" Cesarani, David . Major Faran's Hat: Murder, Scandal and Britain's War Against Jewish Terrorism , 1945–1948. London. Vintage Books. 2010. p 01. ^ Arie Perliger, William L. Eubank, Middle Eastern Terrorism , 2006 p. 37: \"Lehi viewed acts of terrorism as legitimate tools in the realization of the vision of the Jewish nation and a necessary condition for national liberation.\" ^ \"Eliahu Amikam – Stern Gang Leader\" . The Washington Post . 16 August 1995. pp. D5. Archived from the original (Free Preview; full article requires payment.) on 18 March 2009 . Retrieved 18 November 2008 . The [AMIKAM] Stern Gang – known in Hebrew as Lehi, an acronym for Israel Freedom Fighters – was the most militant of the pre-state underground groups. ^ \"Definition of Stern Gang in English\" . Oxford Dictionaries . Archived from the original on 3 December 2013 . Retrieved 30 November 2013 . ^ Laqueur, Walter (2003) [1972]. \"Jabotinsky and Revisionism\" . A History of Zionism ( Google Book Search ) (3rd ed.). London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks . p. 377. ISBN 978-1-86064-932-5 . OCLC 249640859 . Retrieved 18 November 2008 . ^ Jean E. Rosenfeld, Terrorism, Identity, and Legitimacy: The Four Waves Theory and Political Violence , 2010 p. 161 n. 7: 'Lehi ... was the last group to identify itself as a terrorist one' ^ Cite error: The named reference khazit was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sasson Sofer. Zionism and the Foundations of Israeli Diplomacy . Cambridge University Press, 2007. pp. 253–254. ^ Leslie Stein, The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel , Greenwood Publishing Group 2003 pp. 237–238. ^ Robert S. Wistrich, David Ohana. The Shaping of Israeli Identity: Myth, Memory, and Trauma , Issue 3. London; Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1995. p. 88. ^ Joseph Heller. The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics, and Terror, 1940–1949 . p. 8. ^ Ami Pedahzur, The Israeli Response to Jewish Extremism and Violence: Defending Democracy , Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York 2002 p. 77 ^ Perliger, Arie; Weinberg, Leonard (2003). \"Jewish Self-Defence and Terrorist Groups Prior to the Establishment of the State of Israel: Roots and Traditions\" . Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions . 4 (3): 113– 114. doi : 10.1080/14690760412331326250 . However, before its final demise, the Lehi carried out one final terrorist act that brought on a wide-ranging operation by the Israeli security forces against it, including an Israeli government decision to declare it a terrorist organisation. On 16 September 1948, Lehi members assassinated the Swedish Count Folke Bernadotte, who came to Israel as a diplomat of the United Nations. Apparently the reasons for the assassination were grounded in the Lehi's basic lack of trust in the temporary Israeli government. ^ Ralph Bunche report on assassination of UN mediator Archived 7 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine 27 September 1948, \"notorious terrorists long known as the Stern group\" ^ Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger Jewish Terrorism in Israel , Columbia University Press, 2011 p. 28. ^ \"Awards for military service towards the establishment of the State of Israel\" . Israeli Ministry of Defense . Archived from the original on 17 April 2006 . Retrieved 17 September 2018 . The ribbon is awarded to: All those who were members of the LEHI underground for a term of six months or more, in the period dating from 1940 up until the establishment of the State of Israel ... Presentation of the ribbon began in 1980. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Zionist paramilitary organization (1940–1948) Lehi ( Hebrew pronunciation: [ˈleχi] ; Hebrew : לח״י , sometimes abbreviated \"LHI\"), officially the Fighters for the Freedom of Israel (Hebrew: לוחמי חרות ישראל , romanized: Lohamei Herut Israel ) and often known pejoratively as the Stern Gang , was a Zionist paramilitary militant organization founded by Avraham (\"Yair\") Stern in Mandatory Palestine in 1940. Its avowed aim was to evict the British authorities from Palestine by use of violence, allowing unrestricted immigration of Jews and the formation of a Jewish state. It was initially called the National Military Organization in Israel , upon being founded in August 1940, and considered its actions as necessary for achieving its national aims. Lehi split from the Irgun militant group in 1940 in order to continue fighting the British during World War II . It initially sought an alliance with Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany . Believing that Nazi Germany was a lesser enemy of the Jews than Britain, Lehi twice attempted to form an alliance with the Nazis, proposing a Jewish state based on \"nationalist and totalitarian principles, and linked to the German Reich by an alliance\". After Stern's death in 1942, the new leadership of Lehi began to move towards support for Joseph Stalin 's Soviet Union and the ideology of National Bolshevism , which was considered an amalgam of both right and left. Regarding themselves as \"revolutionary Socialists\", the new Lehi developed a highly original ideology combining an \"almost mystical\" belief in Greater Israel with support for the Arab liberation struggle. This sophisticated ideology failed to gain public support and Lehi fared poorly in the first Israeli elections . In April 1948, Lehi and the Irgun were jointly responsible for the massacre in Deir Yassin of at least 107 Palestinian Arab villagers, including women and children. Lehi assassinated Lord Moyne , British Minister Resident in the Middle East, and made many other attacks on the British in Palestine. On 29 May 1948, the government of Israel, having inducted the group's activist members into the Israel Defense Forces , formally disbanded Lehi, though some of its members carried out one final terrorist act, the assassination of Swedish diplomat Folke Bernadotte some months later, an act condemned by Bernadotte's replacement as mediator, Ralph Bunche . After the assassination, the new Israeli government declared Lehi a terrorist organization, arresting some 200 members and convicting some of the leaders. However, several months later, just before the first Israeli elections in January 1949, the government granted all Lehi prisoners amnesty under a state general order of pardon, and they were released. In 1980, Israel instituted a military decoration, an \"award for activity in the struggle for the establishment of Israel\", the Lehi ribbon . Former Lehi leader Yitzhak Shamir became Prime Minister of Israel in 1983. ^ \"סמל לח״י\" . Archived from the original on 18 May 2020 . Retrieved 12 September 2019 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Nachman Ben-Yehuda 1995. Pp. 322 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Yitzhak Shamir, Israel's modest, hardline ex-PM, dies at 96\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 17 May 2023 . Retrieved 18 June 2023 . ^ Khalidi, 1971, p. 606. ^ Cmd. 6873. ^ Pedahzur, Ami (2013). The Israeli Response to Jewish Extremism and Violence . Manchester University Press. Of the movements associated with ultranationalist right-wing notions, the Etzel and the Lehi were the most noteworthy in their use of violence and terrorism ^ Sprinzak, Ehud (1991). The Ascendance of Israel's Radical Right . OUP. p. 23. It was the ultranationalist wing of Revisionism, and was articulated by organizations such as Brit Habirionim and Lehi ^ ^ Heller, Joseph (1995). The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940–49 . Frank Cass. p. 86. ISBN 0-7146-4558-3 . ^ Shlaim, Avi (1996). \"Review: The Likud in Power: The Historiography of Revisionist Zionism\" . Israel Studies . 1 (2): 278– 93. doi : 10.2979/ISR.1996.1.2.278 . JSTOR 30245501 . ^ ^ Shapira, Anita (1999). Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881-1948 . Stanford University Press. p. 347. ISBN 0804737762 . ^ The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940-1949 Joseph Heller page 114 \"Above all, in the summer of 1943 Lehi had still not broken free from the doctrine of persecutor and enemy'. Even after the extent of the Holocaust was revealed, Lehi refused to depict Hitler rather than England as the main foe.\" ^ Jabotinsky and the Revisionist Movement 1925–1948. Yaacov Shavit, Routledge; 1st ed., 1988) p. 231 \"Articles in contemporary Lehi publications talked about the Jewish nation as a heroic people, even a 'master race' (in contrast to the Arabs, who were considered a nation of slaves)\" ^ Schulz 2003 , p. 28, \"The most stark example is Deir Yasin, carved into the memory of Palestinian suffering. The Deir Yasin massacre, conducted by a joint IZL — LHI operation with the reluctant, but nevertheless given, consent of the Haganah , was the one event that had the most immediate effect upon flight. The attack was connected to an operation intended to secure the western entrance to Jerusalem ( ibid .: 113). The atrocities that were committed in the event, in which 250 villagers were massacred and scores of others subject to rape, torture and mutilation, contributed to the spread of panic among Palestine's Arabs ( ibid .: 113f.). Deir Yasin came to serve as a representation of what Jewish forces (irregular or not) might be capable of. Deir Yasin continues to stand out as a symbol of the nakba and the main focal point in remembering the catastrophe.\" harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSchulz2003 ( help ) ^ Ghanim 2018 , pp. 106–108, \"[p. 106] The “ten-day series” refers to a series of operations undertaken by the Zionist forces lasting from the eight until the eighteenth of July, 1948, during which many operations to expel inhabitants and seize villages took place ... [p. 107] During the “ten days,” the Etzioni Brigade attacked the villages located south of Jerusalem alongside forces from the Lehi and Etzel brigades, who had already committed the massacre of Deir Yassin in April 1948 ... Operation Danny, which took place between the ninth and seventeenth of July, 1948 was one of the most significant operations of the “ten days,” during which both Lydda and Ramla fell on the twelfth and thirteenth of July as well as villages south of Jerusalem. The fall of Lydda and Ramla (and the implications of these events), whereby the residents were systematically expelled and prevented by armed force from returning to their villages and cities, constituted one of the most tragic moments of the war for Palestinians ... Lydda also witnessed the Dahmash Massacre, during which tens of Palestinians who were gathered in the Dahmash mosque were terminated ... [p. 108] fifty thousand residents of Lydda and Ramla were expelled after being terrorized.\" harvnb error: no target: CITEREFGhanim2018 ( help ) ^ ^ Heller, Joseph (1995). \"The Zionist Right and National Liberation: From Jabotinsky to Avraham Stern\". In Wistrich, Robert S. ; Ohana, David (eds.). The Shaping of Israeli Identity: Myth, Memory, and Trauma . Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-714-64641-1 . ^ Sasson Sofer. Zionism and the Foundations of Israeli Diplomacy . Cambridge University Press, 2007. pp. 254. \"Lehi's leader Stern stated that he incorporated elements of both the left and the right.\" ^ \"This group was known to its friends as LEHI and to its enemies as the Stern Gang.\" Blumberg, Arnold. History of Israel , Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated, 1998. p 106. ^ \"calling themselves Lohamei Herut Yisrael (LHI) or, less generously, the Stern Gang.\" Lozowick, Yaacov. Right to Exist : A Moral Defense of Israel's Wars . Westminster, MD: Doubleday Publishing, 2003. p. 78. ^ \" It ended in a split with Stern leading his own group out of the Irgun. This was known pejoratively by the British as \"the Stern Gang' – later as Lehi \" Shindler, Colin. Triumph of Military Zionism : Nationalism and the Origins of the Israeli Right . London, GBR: I.B. Tauris & Company, Ltd., 2005. p. 218. ^ \" Known by their Hebrew acronym as LEHI they were more familiar, not to say notorious, to the rest of the world as the Stern Gang – a ferociously effective and murderous terrorist group fighting to end British rule in Palestine and establish a Jewish state. \" Cesarani, David . Major Faran's Hat: Murder, Scandal and Britain's War Against Jewish Terrorism , 1945–1948. London. Vintage Books. 2010. p 01. ^ Arie Perliger, William L. Eubank, Middle Eastern Terrorism , 2006 p. 37: \"Lehi viewed acts of terrorism as legitimate tools in the realization of the vision of the Jewish nation and a necessary condition for national liberation.\" ^ \"Eliahu Amikam – Stern Gang Leader\" . The Washington Post . 16 August 1995. pp. D5. Archived from the original (Free Preview; full article requires payment.) on 18 March 2009 . Retrieved 18 November 2008 . The [AMIKAM] Stern Gang – known in Hebrew as Lehi, an acronym for Israel Freedom Fighters – was the most militant of the pre-state underground groups. ^ \"Definition of Stern Gang in English\" . Oxford Dictionaries . Archived from the original on 3 December 2013 . Retrieved 30 November 2013 . ^ Laqueur, Walter (2003) [1972]. \"Jabotinsky and Revisionism\" . A History of Zionism ( Google Book Search ) (3rd ed.). London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks . p. 377. ISBN 978-1-86064-932-5 . OCLC 249640859 . Retrieved 18 November 2008 . ^ Jean E. Rosenfeld, Terrorism, Identity, and Legitimacy: The Four Waves Theory and Political Violence , 2010 p. 161 n. 7: 'Lehi ... was the last group to identify itself as a terrorist one' ^ Cite error: The named reference khazit was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sasson Sofer. Zionism and the Foundations of Israeli Diplomacy . Cambridge University Press, 2007. pp. 253–254. ^ Leslie Stein, The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel , Greenwood Publishing Group 2003 pp. 237–238. ^ Robert S. Wistrich, David Ohana. The Shaping of Israeli Identity: Myth, Memory, and Trauma , Issue 3. London; Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1995. p. 88. ^ Joseph Heller. The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics, and Terror, 1940–1949 . p. 8. ^ Ami Pedahzur, The Israeli Response to Jewish Extremism and Violence: Defending Democracy , Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York 2002 p. 77 ^ Perliger, Arie; Weinberg, Leonard (2003). \"Jewish Self-Defence and Terrorist Groups Prior to the Establishment of the State of Israel: Roots and Traditions\" . Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions . 4 (3): 113– 114. doi : 10.1080/14690760412331326250 . However, before its final demise, the Lehi carried out one final terrorist act that brought on a wide-ranging operation by the Israeli security forces against it, including an Israeli government decision to declare it a terrorist organisation. On 16 September 1948, Lehi members assassinated the Swedish Count Folke Bernadotte, who came to Israel as a diplomat of the United Nations. Apparently the reasons for the assassination were grounded in the Lehi's basic lack of trust in the temporary Israeli government. ^ Ralph Bunche report on assassination of UN mediator Archived 7 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine 27 September 1948, \"notorious terrorists long known as the Stern group\" ^ Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger Jewish Terrorism in Israel , Columbia University Press, 2011 p. 28. ^ \"Awards for military service towards the establishment of the State of Israel\" . Israeli Ministry of Defense . Archived from the original on 17 April 2006 . Retrieved 17 September 2018 . The ribbon is awarded to: All those who were members of the LEHI underground for a term of six months or more, in the period dating from 1940 up until the establishment of the State of Israel ... Presentation of the ribbon began in 1980. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "King David Hotel bombing",
   "pageid": 105922,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-23T13:32:45Z",
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   "lead_before": "1946 terrorist attack in Jerusalem The British administrative headquarters for Mandatory Palestine , housed in the southern wing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem , were bombed in a terrorist attack on 22 July 1946, by the militant right-wing Zionist underground organization Irgun during the Jewish insurgency . Ninety-one people of various nationalities were killed, including Arabs, Britons and Jews, and 46 were injured. The hotel was the site of the central offices of the British Mandatory authorities of Palestine, principally the Secretariat of the Government of Palestine and the Headquarters of the British Armed Forces in Palestine and Transjordan . When planned, the attack had the approval of the Haganah , the principal Jewish paramilitary group in Palestine, though, unbeknownst to the Irgun, this had been cancelled by the time the operation was carried out. The main motive of the bombing was to destroy documents incriminating the Jewish Agency in attacks against the British, which were obtained during Operation Agatha , a series of raids by mandate authorities. It was the deadliest attack directed at the British during the Mandate era (1920–1948). Disguised as Arab workmen and as hotel waiters, members of the Irgun planted a bomb in the basement of the main building of the hotel, whose southern wing housed the Mandate Secretariat and a few offices of the British military headquarters. The resulting explosion caused the collapse of the western half of the southern wing of the hotel. Some of the deaths and injuries occurred in the road outside the hotel and in adjacent buildings. Controversy has arisen over the timing and adequacy of any warnings. The Irgun stated subsequently that warnings were delivered by telephone; Thurston Clarke states that the first warning was delivered by a 16-year-old recruit to the hotel switchboard 15 minutes before the explosion. The British Government said after the inquest that no warning had been received by anyone at the Secretariat \"in an official position with any power to take action\". ^ Smith, Paul J. (2007). The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First . M.E. Sharpe . p. 27. ^ Chalk, Peter (1996). Encyclopedia of World Terrorism . Routledge . p. 394. ISBN 978-1-56324-806-1 . ^ Crenshaw, Martha; Pimlott, John (1998). International Encyclopedia of Terrorism . Routledge . p. 287. ISBN 978-1-57958-022-3 . ^ Hardy, Roger (2017). The Poisoned Well, Empire and its Legacy in the Middle East . New York: Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-19-062322-7 . ^ Encyclopedia of Terrorism , Harvey W. Kushner , Sage, 2003 p. 181 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica article on the Irgun Zvai Leumi ^ The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism , William Roger Louis, Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 430 ^ Clarke, Thurston . By Blood and Fire , G. P. Puttnam's Sons, New York, 1981 ^ Cite error: The named reference Bethell-1979 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Koestler, Arthur (1949). Promise and Fulfilment, Palestine 1917–1949 . London: Macmillan.",
   "lead_after": "1946 terrorist attack in Jerusalem The British administrative headquarters for Mandatory Palestine , housed in the southern wing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem , were bombed in a terrorist attack on 22 July 1946, by the militant right-wing Zionist underground organization Irgun during the Jewish insurgency . Ninety-one people of various nationalities were killed, including Arabs, Britons and Jews, and 46 were injured. The hotel was the site of the central offices of the British Mandatory authorities of Palestine, principally the Secretariat of the Government of Palestine and the Headquarters of the British Armed Forces in Palestine and Transjordan . When planned, the attack had the approval of the Haganah , the principal Jewish paramilitary group in Palestine, though, unbeknownst to the Irgun, this had been cancelled by the time the operation was carried out. The main motive of the bombing was to destroy documents incriminating the Jewish Agency in attacks against the British, which were obtained during Operation Agatha , a series of raids by mandate authorities. It was the deadliest attack directed at the British during the Mandate era (1920–1948). Disguised as Arab workmen and as hotel waiters, members of the Irgun planted a bomb in the basement of the main building of the hotel, whose southern wing housed the Mandate Secretariat and a few offices of the British military headquarters. The resulting explosion caused the collapse of the western half of the southern wing of the hotel. Some of the deaths and injuries occurred in the road outside the hotel and in adjacent buildings. Controversy has arisen over the timing and adequacy of any warnings. The Irgun stated subsequently that warnings were delivered by telephone; Thurston Clarke states that the first warning was delivered by a 16-year-old recruit to the hotel switchboard 15 minutes before the explosion. The British Government said after the inquest that no warning had been received by anyone at the Secretariat \"in an official position with any power to take action\". ^ Smith, Paul J. (2007). The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First . M.E. Sharpe . p. 27. ^ Chalk, Peter (1996). Encyclopedia of World Terrorism . Routledge . p. 394. ISBN 978-1-56324-806-1 . ^ Crenshaw, Martha; Pimlott, John (1998). International Encyclopedia of Terrorism . Routledge . p. 287. ISBN 978-1-57958-022-3 . ^ Hardy, Roger (2017). The Poisoned Well, Empire and its Legacy in the Middle East . New York: Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-19-062322-7 . ^ Encyclopedia of Terrorism , Harvey W. Kushner , Sage, 2003 p. 181 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica article on the Irgun Zvai Leumi ^ The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism , William Roger Louis, Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 430 ^ Clarke, Thurston . By Blood and Fire , G. P. Puttnam's Sons, New York, 1981 ^ Cite error: The named reference Bethell-1979 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Koestler, Arthur (1949). Promise and Fulfilment, Palestine 1917–1949 . London: Macmillan."
  },
  {
   "title": "Hilltop Youth",
   "pageid": 478860,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-22T08:54:24Z",
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   "lead_before": "Extremist Israeli youth settlers in the Israeli-occupied West Bank Hilltop Youth ( Hebrew : נוער הגבעות , romanized : No'ar HaGva'ot ) are extremist settler youth of Hardal origin operating in the Israeli-occupied West Bank . They are known for establishing outposts without an Israeli legal basis and conducting settler violence against Palestinians . The Hilltop Youth often grow their hair into long, wide sidelocks ( payot ) and wear large knitted kippahs . They have been involved in numerous violent incidents, including the Duma arson attack , Kidnapping and murder of Mohammed Abu Khdeir and Church of the Multiplication arson attack . They were sanctioned by the European Union and Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) in 2024. ^ Cite error: The named reference Byman was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Erica Chernofsky (18 August 2009). \"Hilltop Youth push to settle West Bank\" . BBC . Retrieved 11 January 2012 . ^ 'Ex-Shin Bet chief: Government does not want to deal with Jewish terror,' Ynet 8 August 2015. ^ \"היוזמה החדשה שתנסה לפתור את "תופעת השוטטות" של בני נוער ביו"ש\" . מקור ראשון (in Hebrew). 9 July 2023 . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ Hartman, Ben (29 July 2015). \"Suspects from extremist Jewish group indicted for arson of Church of Loaves and Fishes\" . Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 4 September 2015 . ^ Levinson, Chaim; Shpigel, Noa (30 July 2015). \"DNA and Cameras: Police Reveal How They Solved Church of Fish and Loaves Arson\" . Haaretz . Retrieved 4 September 2015 . ^ Shpigel, Noa (14 August 2015). \"Arson Suspect in Galilee Church Torching Charged With Sedition\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 15 August 2015 . Retrieved 4 September 2015 . ^ \"Supreme Court Rejects Church Arson Suspect's Appeal\" . Arutz Sheva. 4 September 2015 . Retrieved 4 September 2015 . ^ \"Treasury Designates Extremist Settler Group in West Bank\" . U.S. Department of the Treasury . 8 February 2025 . Retrieved 29 May 2025 . ^ \"Extremist settlers in the occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem: Council sanctions four individuals and two entities over serious human rights abuses against Palestinians\" . Consilium . Retrieved 29 May 2025 .",
   "lead_after": "Extremist Israeli youth settlers in the Israeli-occupied West Bank Hilltop Youth ( Hebrew : נוער הגבעות , romanized : No'ar HaGva'ot ) are extremist settler youth movement of Hardal origin operating in the Israeli-occupied West Bank . They are known for establishing outposts without an Israeli legal basis and conducting settler violence against Palestinians . The Hilltop Youth often grow their hair into long, wide sidelocks ( payot ) and wear large knitted kippahs . They have been involved in numerous violent incidents, including the Duma arson attack , Kidnapping and murder of Mohammed Abu Khdeir and Church of the Multiplication arson attack . They were sanctioned by the European Union and Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) in 2024. ^ Cite error: The named reference Byman was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Erica Chernofsky (18 August 2009). \"Hilltop Youth push to settle West Bank\" . BBC . Retrieved 11 January 2012 . ^ 'Ex-Shin Bet chief: Government does not want to deal with Jewish terror,' Ynet 8 August 2015. ^ \"היוזמה החדשה שתנסה לפתור את "תופעת השוטטות" של בני נוער ביו"ש\" . מקור ראשון (in Hebrew). 9 July 2023 . Retrieved 15 May 2025 . ^ Hartman, Ben (29 July 2015). \"Suspects from extremist Jewish group indicted for arson of Church of Loaves and Fishes\" . Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 4 September 2015 . ^ Levinson, Chaim; Shpigel, Noa (30 July 2015). \"DNA and Cameras: Police Reveal How They Solved Church of Fish and Loaves Arson\" . Haaretz . Retrieved 4 September 2015 . ^ Shpigel, Noa (14 August 2015). \"Arson Suspect in Galilee Church Torching Charged With Sedition\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 15 August 2015 . Retrieved 4 September 2015 . ^ \"Supreme Court Rejects Church Arson Suspect's Appeal\" . Arutz Sheva. 4 September 2015 . Retrieved 4 September 2015 . ^ \"Treasury Designates Extremist Settler Group in West Bank\" . U.S. Department of the Treasury . 8 February 2025 . Retrieved 29 May 2025 . ^ \"Extremist settlers in the occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem: Council sanctions four individuals and two entities over serious human rights abuses against Palestinians\" . Consilium . Retrieved 29 May 2025 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Criticism of Hamas",
   "pageid": 51352002,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-25T07:05:51Z",
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   "lead_before": "Aside from its use of political violence in pursuit of its goals, the Palestinian political and military organization Hamas has been widely criticised for a variety of reasons, including its use of hate speech by its representatives, use of human shields and child combatants as part of its military operations, restriction of political freedoms within the Gaza Strip , and human rights abuses .",
   "lead_after": "Aside from its use of political violence in pursuit of its goals, the Palestinian political and military organization Hamas has been widely criticised for a variety of reasons, including its use of hate speech by its representatives, use of human shields and child combatants as part of its military operations, restriction of political freedoms within the Gaza Strip , and human rights abuses ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Palestinian refugees",
   "pageid": 74681,
   "revid_before": 1357148313,
   "revid_after": 1366179798,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-26T19:18:37Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palestinian_refugees&oldid=1357148313",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palestinian_refugees&oldid=1366179798",
   "lead_before": "Displaced persons and refugees Clickable map of the more than 400 depopulated towns and villages of the 1948 Palestinian exodus (red) and the c. 60 modern day Palestinian refugee camps (blue) In 1949, UNRWA formally defined the term \" Palestine refugee \" to refer to any Palestinian citizen or the descendant of any male Palestinian citizen who—if their regular place of residence was located within Mandatory Palestine between 1 June 1946 and 15 May 1948—was found to have \"lost both home and means of livelihood\" during the 1948 Palestine war . While this definition originally included Arab Palestinians displaced from or within Israel as well as Jewish Palestinians displaced from Arab-controlled territory , it ceased to apply to Arabs and Jews who became Israeli citizens in 1952 ; Arab Palestinians who were displaced from their homes while ultimately remaining within Israeli territory were instead designated as \" present absentees \" and not subject to UNRWA's jurisdiction. In addition to more than 700,000 Palestinians who fled or were expelled by Israel before the 1949 Armistice Agreements , another 285,000 to 325,000 Palestinians were displaced due to the 1967 Arab–Israeli War . As of 2019, more than 5.6 million Palestinians were registered with UNRWA as refugees, of whom more than 1.5 million were living in UNRWA-run camps ; UNRWA's assistance is limited to Palestinian refugees and their descendants living in the occupied Palestinian territories ( West Bank and Gaza Strip ), Lebanon , Jordan , and Syria . According to some estimates, as many as 1,050,000 to 1,380,000 people who are descendants of the displaced citizens of Mandatory Palestine are not registered under UNRWA or UNHCR mandates. Palestinian refugees are the modern world's oldest unsettled refugee population, having been under the ongoing governance of various Arab countries following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , the refugee populations of the West Bank under Israeli governance since 1967 and Palestinian Authority administration since the 1995 Oslo II Accord , and the Gaza Strip administered by Hamas since 2007. Today, the largest number of refugees, over 2,000,000, live in Jordan, where by 2009 over 90% of UNWRA-registered Palestinian refugees had acquired full citizenship rights. This figure consists almost exclusively of West Bank–descended Palestinians; however, as of December 2021, Palestinians with roots in the Gaza Strip are also still kept in legal limbo. In 2021, Jordanian politician Jawad Anani estimated that roughly 50% of Jordan's population had West Bank–Palestinian roots. Another approximately 2,000,000 refugees live in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, under Israeli occupation and blockade. Approximately 500,000 refugees live in each of Syria and Lebanon respectively, albeit under very different circumstances. While Palestinian refugees in Syria maintained their stateless status, the Syrian government during Assad's rule afforded them the same economic and social rights enjoyed by Syrian citizens; they were also drafted into the Armed Forces despite not being citizens. Citizenship or legal residency in some host countries is denied, most notably for the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon , where the absorption of Palestinians would upset a delicate confessional balance. For the refugees themselves, these situations mean they have reduced rights: no right to vote, limited property rights and access to social services, among other things. On 11 December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations (UNGA) adopted Resolution 194 which affirmed the Palestinians right to return to their homes. ^ \"Consolidated Eligibility and Registration Instructions\" (PDF) . UNRWA. Persons who meet UNRWA's Palestine Refugee criteria These are persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948, and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict. Palestine Refugees, and descendants of Palestine refugee males, including legally adopted children, are eligible to register for UNRWA services. The Agency accepts new applications from persons who wish to be registered as Palestine Refugees. Once they are registered with UNRWA, persons in this category are referred to as Registered Refugees or as Registered Palestine Refugees. ^ Susan Akram (2011). International law and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict . Taylor & Francis. pp. 19– 20, 38. ISBN 978-0415573221 . The term 'refugees' applies to all persons, Arabs, Jews and others who have been displaced from their homes in Palestine. This would include Arabs in Israel who have been shifted from their normal places of residence. It would also include Jews who had their homes in Arab Palestine, such as the inhabitants of the Jewish quarter of the Old City. It would not include Arabs who lost their lands but not their houses, such as the inhabitants of Tulkarm ^ UNRWA : In the aftermath of the hostilities of June 1967 and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, ten camps were established to accommodate a new wave of displaced persons, both refugees and non-refugees. ^ UNRWA: FAQ : As of 2019, over 5.6 million Palestine refugees were registered as such with the Agency ^ UNRWA : more than 1.5 million individuals, live in 58 recognized Palestine refugee camps in ... ^ Morris 2001 , pp. 252–258. ^ BADIL 2015 , p. 52. ^ Davis, Hanna (18 December 2021). \"Jordan: Palestinian refugees struggle amid UNRWA funding cuts\" . Al-Jazeera English . ^ Cite error: The named reference Lindsay2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Brynen, Rex (2006). Perspectives on Palestinian repatriation . Palestinian Refugee Repatriation: Global Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. pp. 63–86 [66, 80]. ISBN 978-0415384971 . Retrieved 4 April 2020 . ^ Menachem Klein, 'The Palestinian refugees of 1948: models of allowed and denied return,' in Dumper, 2006 pp. 87–106, [93]. ^ \"Treatment and Rights in Arab Host States (Right to Return\" . Human Rights Watch Policy . Retrieved 23 December 2022 . Unlike Jordan, Syria has maintained the stateless status of its Palestinians but has afforded them the same economic and social rights enjoyed by Syrian citizens. According to a 1956 law, Palestinians are treated as if they are Syrians \"in all matters pertaining to...the rights of employment, work, commerce, and national obligations\". As a consequence, Palestinians in Syria do not suffer from massive unemployment or underemployment ^ \"Profiles: Palestinian Refugees in SYRIA\" . BADIL Resource Center for Palestinian Residency and Refugee Rights. Archived from the original on 11 August 2014 . Retrieved 26 July 2014 . ^ Bolongaro, Kait (23 March 2016). \"Palestinian Syrians: Twice refugees - Human Rights\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 18 June 2021 . ^ A/RES/194 (III) . ^ Dumper 2006 , p. 2: the right of return of the Palestinian refugees to their homes was accepted and supported by the United Nations Resolution 194. Cite error: There are <ref group=fn> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=fn}} template (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Displaced persons and refugees Clickable map of the more than 400 depopulated towns and villages of the 1948 Palestinian exodus (red) and the c. 60 modern day Palestinian refugee camps (blue) In 1949, UNRWA formally defined the term \" Palestine refugee \" to refer to any Palestinian citizen or the descendant of any male Palestinian citizen who—if their regular place of residence was located within Mandatory Palestine between 1 June 1946 and 15 May 1948—was found to have \"lost both home and means of livelihood\" during the 1948 Palestine war . While this definition originally included Arab Palestinians displaced from or within Israel as well as Jewish Palestinians displaced from Arab-controlled territory , it ceased to apply to Arabs and Jews who became Israeli citizens in 1952 ; Arab Palestinians who were displaced from their homes while ultimately remaining within Israeli territory were instead designated as \" present absentees \" and not subject to UNRWA's jurisdiction. In addition to more than 700,000 Palestinians who fled or were expelled by Israel before the 1949 Armistice Agreements , another 285,000 to 325,000 Palestinians were displaced due to the 1967 Arab–Israeli War . As of 2019, more than 5.6 million Palestinians were registered with UNRWA as refugees, of whom more than 1.5 million were living in UNRWA-run camps ; UNRWA's assistance is limited to Palestinian refugees and their descendants living in the occupied Palestinian territories ( West Bank and Gaza Strip ), Lebanon , Jordan , and Syria . According to some estimates, as many as 1,050,000 to 1,380,000 people who are descendants of the displaced citizens of Mandatory Palestine are not registered under UNRWA or UNHCR mandates. Palestinian refugees are the modern world's oldest unsettled refugee population, having been under the ongoing governance of various Arab countries following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , the refugee populations of the West Bank under Israeli governance since 1967 and Palestinian Authority administration since the 1995 Oslo II Accord , and the Gaza Strip administered by Hamas since 2007. Today, the largest number of refugees, over 2,000,000, live in Jordan, where by 2009 over 90% of UNWRA-registered Palestinian refugees had acquired full citizenship rights. This figure consists almost exclusively of West Bank–descended Palestinians; however, as of December 2021, Palestinians with roots in the Gaza Strip are also still kept in legal limbo. In 2021, Jordanian politician Jawad Anani estimated that roughly 50% of Jordan's population had West Bank–Palestinian roots. Another approximately 2,000,000 refugees live in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, under Israeli occupation and blockade. Approximately 500,000 refugees live in each of Syria and Lebanon respectively, albeit under very different circumstances. While Palestinian refugees in Syria maintained their stateless status, the Syrian government during Assad's rule afforded them the same economic and social rights enjoyed by Syrian citizens; they were also drafted into the Armed Forces despite not being citizens. Citizenship or legal residency in some host countries is denied, most notably for the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon , where the absorption of Palestinians would upset a delicate confessional balance. For the refugees themselves, these situations mean they have reduced rights: no right to vote, limited property rights and access to social services, among other things. On 11 December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations (UNGA) adopted Resolution 194 which affirmed the Palestinians right to return to their homes. ^ \"Consolidated Eligibility and Registration Instructions\" (PDF) . UNRWA. Persons who meet UNRWA's Palestine Refugee criteria These are persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948, and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict. Palestine Refugees, and descendants of Palestine refugee males, including legally adopted children, are eligible to register for UNRWA services. The Agency accepts new applications from persons who wish to be registered as Palestine Refugees. Once they are registered with UNRWA, persons in this category are referred to as Registered Refugees or as Registered Palestine Refugees. ^ Susan Akram (2011). International law and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict . Taylor & Francis. pp. 19– 20, 38. ISBN 978-0415573221 . The term 'refugees' applies to all persons, Arabs, Jews and others who have been displaced from their homes in Palestine. This would include Arabs in Israel who have been shifted from their normal places of residence. It would also include Jews who had their homes in Arab Palestine, such as the inhabitants of the Jewish quarter of the Old City. It would not include Arabs who lost their lands but not their houses, such as the inhabitants of Tulkarm ^ UNRWA : In the aftermath of the hostilities of June 1967 and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, ten camps were established to accommodate a new wave of displaced persons, both refugees and non-refugees. ^ UNRWA: FAQ : As of 2019, over 5.6 million Palestine refugees were registered as such with the Agency ^ UNRWA : more than 1.5 million individuals, live in 58 recognized Palestine refugee camps in ... ^ Morris 2001 , pp. 252–258. ^ BADIL 2015 , p. 52. ^ Davis, Hanna (18 December 2021). \"Jordan: Palestinian refugees struggle amid UNRWA funding cuts\" . Al-Jazeera English . ^ Cite error: The named reference Lindsay2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Brynen, Rex (2006). Perspectives on Palestinian repatriation . Palestinian Refugee Repatriation: Global Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. pp. 63–86 [66, 80]. ISBN 978-0415384971 . Retrieved 4 April 2020 . ^ Menachem Klein, 'The Palestinian refugees of 1948: models of allowed and denied return,' in Dumper, 2006 pp. 87–106, [93]. ^ \"Treatment and Rights in Arab Host States (Right to Return\" . Human Rights Watch Policy . Retrieved 23 December 2022 . Unlike Jordan, Syria has maintained the stateless status of its Palestinians but has afforded them the same economic and social rights enjoyed by Syrian citizens. According to a 1956 law, Palestinians are treated as if they are Syrians \"in all matters pertaining to...the rights of employment, work, commerce, and national obligations\". As a consequence, Palestinians in Syria do not suffer from massive unemployment or underemployment ^ \"Profiles: Palestinian Refugees in SYRIA\" . BADIL Resource Center for Palestinian Residency and Refugee Rights. Archived from the original on 11 August 2014 . Retrieved 26 July 2014 . ^ Bolongaro, Kait (23 March 2016). \"Palestinian Syrians: Twice refugees - Human Rights\" . Al Jazeera . Retrieved 18 June 2021 . ^ A/RES/194 (III) . ^ Dumper 2006 , p. 2: the right of return of the Palestinian refugees to their homes was accepted and supported by the United Nations Resolution 194. Cite error: There are <ref group=fn> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=fn}} template (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Sheikh Jarrah controversy",
   "pageid": 67667682,
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   "lead_before": "Political and legal dispute between Israel and the Palestinians OCHA map of Palestinian communities under threat of eviction in East Jerusalem , as at 2016. Three areas of Sheikh Jarrah are identified: Im Haroun, Karm al-Jaouni and central Sheikh Jarrah. Checkpoints since 3 May 2021 at Karm Al Jaouni area of Sheikh Jarrah The Sheikh Jarrah controversy , which has been described as a \"property/real estate dispute\" by the Israeli government and its supporters, and as an \"expulsion\", \"displacement\" or \"ethnic cleansing\" event and a matter of international law by Palestinians and their supporters, is a long-running legal and political dispute between Palestinians and Israelis over the ownership of certain properties and housing units in Sheikh Jarrah , East Jerusalem . The evictions are considered a contributory cause of the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis . It has been described as a microcosm of the Israeli–Palestinian disputes over land since 1948, with academic Kristen Alff noting \"To describe dispossessions in Sheikh Jarrah as a \"real estate\" quarrel conceals the true history of land ownership in the regions – which is complicated, disputed and rarely decided in favor of Palestinians.\" In East Jerusalem, Israel's laws allow Jews to file claims over property held prior to 1948, but reject Palestinian claims over property that they owned prior to 1948 in Israel proper. According to Middle East Eye , the dispute is part of the Israeli government's Holy Basin settlement strategy. Aryeh King , a deputy mayor of Jerusalem and one of the founders of Ma'ale HaZeitim , an illegal settlement, told The New York Times that the eviction of Palestinian families was \"of course\" part of a municipal strategy to create \"layers of Jews\" throughout East Jerusalem. Many Palestinian families in East Jerusalem have been affected by \"forced relocation processes or been involved in lengthy legal procedures to revoke an eviction order\". The property in Sheikh Jarrah in dispute includes the adjacent Shimon HaTzadik / Karm Al-Ja’ouni and Um Haroun (former Nahalat Shimon ) compounds to the East and West respectively of the Nablus Road. In the former, the Palestinian residents of Sheikh Jarrah were refugees who received plots of land in a UNRWA lottery, relinquishing in return their refugee documents and accompanying rights. They have no right under Israeli law to repossess their pre-1948 homes in Haifa , Sarafand and Jaffa . The Palestinian view is that given Sheikh Jarrah's location beyond the Green Line or Israel proper, Israeli courts have no jurisdiction over land disputes in what is occupied territory according to international law , and that the displacement of people in occupied territory is a war crime under the Rome Statute . The United Nations Human Rights Office has said that as Sheikh Jarrah is in East Jerusalem, which is considered occupied territory, international humanitarian law prohibits the confiscation of private property and evictions of Palestinian families could constitute war crimes. ^ Hurst, Luke (20 May 2021). \"Sheikh Jarrah: Small neighbourhood making big impact in Gaza conflict\" . Euronews . Archived from the original on 21 May 2021 . Retrieved 28 May 2021 . What is happening in Sheikh Jarrah has been characterised by the settlers and their supporters as a mere property dispute. Lucy Garbett, 'I live in Sheikh Jarrah. For Palestinians, this is not a ‘real estate dispute’ Archived 25 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian , 17 May 2021: \"There have been many attempts to portray the cases of dispossession in Jerusalem, and Sheikh Jarrah specifically, as isolated, individual incidents, painting them as \"real estate disputes\" that drag on for years in court. But for Palestinians, Sheikh Jarrah is simply a microcosm of life in Jerusalem. It symbolises the continuing ethnic cleansing of our land and homes.\" Haynes Brown, 'The latest Israel-Palestine crisis isn't a 'real estate dispute'. It's ethnic cleansing' , Archived 2 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine MSNBC , 11 May 2021: \"Regrettably, the PA\" — the Palestinian Authority — \"and Palestinian terror groups are presenting a real-estate dispute between private parties, as a nationalistic cause, in order to incite violence in Jerusalem,\" the ministry said in a statement Saturday, two days after anger in the Sheikh Jarrah neighborhood of east Jerusalem began to boil over. Calling the catalyst of all this a 'real estate dispute' is a particularly noxious way to diminish what's actually occurring: Nahalat Shimon, a U.S.-based settler organization, is trying to have Palestinians who have lived in the neighborhood since 1956 evicted.\" Patrick Kingsley, 'Israeli Court Delays Expulsion of Palestinian Families in East Jerusalem,' Archived 9 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times , 9 May 2021 ^ Kingsley, Patrick (7 June 2021). \"A House Divided: A Palestinian, a Settler and the Struggle for East Jerusalem\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 25 May 2023 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ \"Evictions in Jerusalem Become Focus of Israeli-Palestinian Conflict\" . The New York Times . 8 May 2021. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021 . Retrieved 28 May 2021 . ^ Kingsley, Patrick (7 May 2021). \"Evictions in Jerusalem Become Focus of Israeli-Palestinian Conflict\" . The New York Times . Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021 . Retrieved 9 May 2021 . ^ Cite error: The named reference auto was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Seth Frantzman, 9 May 2021, Why the Sheikh Jarrah dispute has captured international attention Archived 10 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine , The Jewish Chronicle ^ Daventry, Michael (4 August 2021). \"Sheikh Jarrah explained: why it's more than just a property dispute\" . jewishnews.timesofisrael.com . Archived from the original on 25 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ Alff, Kristen (14 June 2021). \"Property disputes in Israel come with a complicated back story – and tend to end with Palestinian dispossession\" . The Conversation . Retrieved 7 August 2021 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Jadallah, Dina (15 January 2014). \"Colonialist Construction in the Urban Space of Jerusalem\". The Middle East Journal . 68 (1): 77– 98. doi : 10.3751/68.1.14 . ISSN 0026-3141 . S2CID 144192838 . ^ \"What has caused Jerusalem's worst violence in years?\" . The Guardian . 11 May 2021. Archived from the original on 12 May 2021 . Retrieved 15 May 2021 . Under Israeli law, Jews who can prove pre-1948 title can claim back their Jerusalem properties. No similar law exists for Palestinians who lost homes in West Jerusalem. ^ Evan Gottesman, Forward , 10 May 2021, The fights over Sheikh Jarrah reveal the folly of relitigating Israel's founding Archived 12 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine ^ Sheikh Jarrah explained: The past and present of East Jerusalem neighbourhood Archived 15 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine , Middle East Eye ^ Evictions in Jerusalem Become Focus of Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Archived 9 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine , 7 May 2021 ^ Meir Margalit (26 July 2018). \"9. Silent Forced Migrations in Twenty-First-Century Jerusalem\". In Tabea Linhard; Timothy H. Parsons (eds.). Mapping Migration, Identity, and Space . Springer International Publishing. p. 221-. ISBN 978-3-319-77955-3 . Archived from the original on 25 May 2021 . Retrieved 25 May 2021 . ^ Daphna Golan-Agnon, Teaching Palestine on an Israeli University Campus:Unsettling Denial , Archived 10 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine Anthern Press 2020 ISBN 978-1-785-27502-9 p.57. ^ Cite error: The named reference exchange was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Bacon, Tareq (14 May 2021). \"Sheikh Jarrah and After\" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on 17 May 2021 . Retrieved 17 May 2021 . ^ Magid, Jacob (7 May 2021). \"UN: Pending Israeli evictions in East Jerusalem could be a 'war crime' \" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 24 May 2021 . Retrieved 24 May 2021 .",
   "lead_after": "Political and legal dispute between Israel and the Palestinians OCHA map of Palestinian communities under threat of eviction in East Jerusalem , as at 2016. Three areas of Sheikh Jarrah are identified: Im Haroun, Karm al-Jaouni and central Sheikh Jarrah. Checkpoints since 3 May 2021 at Karm Al Jaouni area of Sheikh Jarrah The Sheikh Jarrah controversy , which has been described as a \"property/real estate dispute\" by the Israeli government and its supporters, and as an \"expulsion\", \"displacement\" or \"ethnic cleansing\" event and a matter of international law by Palestinians and their supporters, is a long-running legal and political dispute between Palestinians and Israelis over the ownership of certain properties and housing units in Sheikh Jarrah , East Jerusalem . The evictions are considered a contributory cause of the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis . It has been described as a microcosm of the Israeli–Palestinian disputes over land since 1948, with academic Kristen Alff noting \"To describe dispossessions in Sheikh Jarrah as a \"real estate\" quarrel conceals the true history of land ownership in the regions – which is complicated, disputed and rarely decided in favor of Palestinians.\" In East Jerusalem, Israel's laws allow Jews to file claims over property held prior to 1948, but reject Palestinian claims over property that they owned prior to 1948 in Israel proper. According to Middle East Eye , the dispute is part of the Israeli government's Holy Basin settlement strategy. Aryeh King , a deputy mayor of Jerusalem and one of the founders of Ma'ale HaZeitim , an illegal settlement, told The New York Times that the eviction of Palestinian families was \"of course\" part of a municipal strategy to create \"layers of Jews\" throughout East Jerusalem. Many Palestinian families in East Jerusalem have been affected by \"forced relocation processes or been involved in lengthy legal procedures to revoke an eviction order\". The property in Sheikh Jarrah in dispute includes the adjacent Shimon HaTzadik / Karm Al-Ja’ouni and Um Haroun (former Nahalat Shimon ) compounds to the East and West respectively of the Nablus Road. In the former, the Palestinian residents of Sheikh Jarrah were refugees who received plots of land in a UNRWA lottery, relinquishing in return their refugee documents and accompanying rights. They have no right under Israeli law to repossess their pre-1948 homes in Haifa , Sarafand and Jaffa . The Palestinian view is that given Sheikh Jarrah's location beyond the Green Line or Israel proper, Israeli courts have no jurisdiction over land disputes in what is occupied territory according to international law , and that the displacement of people in occupied territory is a war crime under the Rome Statute . The United Nations Human Rights Office has said that as Sheikh Jarrah is in East Jerusalem, which is considered occupied territory, international humanitarian law prohibits the confiscation of private property and evictions of Palestinian families could constitute war crimes. ^ Hurst, Luke (20 May 2021). \"Sheikh Jarrah: Small neighbourhood making big impact in Gaza conflict\" . Euronews . Archived from the original on 21 May 2021 . Retrieved 28 May 2021 . What is happening in Sheikh Jarrah has been characterised by the settlers and their supporters as a mere property dispute. Lucy Garbett, 'I live in Sheikh Jarrah. For Palestinians, this is not a ‘real estate dispute’ Archived 25 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian , 17 May 2021: \"There have been many attempts to portray the cases of dispossession in Jerusalem, and Sheikh Jarrah specifically, as isolated, individual incidents, painting them as \"real estate disputes\" that drag on for years in court. But for Palestinians, Sheikh Jarrah is simply a microcosm of life in Jerusalem. It symbolises the continuing ethnic cleansing of our land and homes.\" Haynes Brown, 'The latest Israel-Palestine crisis isn't a 'real estate dispute'. It's ethnic cleansing' , Archived 2 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine MSNBC , 11 May 2021: \"Regrettably, the PA\" — the Palestinian Authority — \"and Palestinian terror groups are presenting a real-estate dispute between private parties, as a nationalistic cause, in order to incite violence in Jerusalem,\" the ministry said in a statement Saturday, two days after anger in the Sheikh Jarrah neighborhood of east Jerusalem began to boil over. Calling the catalyst of all this a 'real estate dispute' is a particularly noxious way to diminish what's actually occurring: Nahalat Shimon, a U.S.-based settler organization, is trying to have Palestinians who have lived in the neighborhood since 1956 evicted.\" Patrick Kingsley, 'Israeli Court Delays Expulsion of Palestinian Families in East Jerusalem,' Archived 9 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times , 9 May 2021 ^ Kingsley, Patrick (7 June 2021). \"A House Divided: A Palestinian, a Settler and the Struggle for East Jerusalem\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 25 May 2023 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ \"Evictions in Jerusalem Become Focus of Israeli-Palestinian Conflict\" . The New York Times . 8 May 2021. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021 . Retrieved 28 May 2021 . ^ Kingsley, Patrick (7 May 2021). \"Evictions in Jerusalem Become Focus of Israeli-Palestinian Conflict\" . The New York Times . Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021 . Retrieved 9 May 2021 . ^ Cite error: The named reference auto was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Seth Frantzman, 9 May 2021, Why the Sheikh Jarrah dispute has captured international attention , The Jewish Chronicle ^ Daventry, Michael (4 August 2021). \"Sheikh Jarrah explained: why it's more than just a property dispute\" . jewishnews.timesofisrael.com . Archived from the original on 25 May 2024 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ Alff, Kristen (14 June 2021). \"Property disputes in Israel come with a complicated back story – and tend to end with Palestinian dispossession\" . The Conversation . Retrieved 7 August 2021 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: deprecated archival service ( link ) ^ Jadallah, Dina (15 January 2014). \"Colonialist Construction in the Urban Space of Jerusalem\". The Middle East Journal . 68 (1): 77– 98. doi : 10.3751/68.1.14 . ISSN 0026-3141 . S2CID 144192838 . ^ \"What has caused Jerusalem's worst violence in years?\" . The Guardian . 11 May 2021. Archived from the original on 12 May 2021 . Retrieved 15 May 2021 . Under Israeli law, Jews who can prove pre-1948 title can claim back their Jerusalem properties. No similar law exists for Palestinians who lost homes in West Jerusalem. ^ Evan Gottesman, Forward , 10 May 2021, The fights over Sheikh Jarrah reveal the folly of relitigating Israel's founding Archived 12 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine ^ Sheikh Jarrah explained: The past and present of East Jerusalem neighbourhood Archived 15 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine , Middle East Eye ^ Evictions in Jerusalem Become Focus of Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Archived 9 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine , 7 May 2021 ^ Meir Margalit (26 July 2018). \"9. Silent Forced Migrations in Twenty-First-Century Jerusalem\". In Tabea Linhard; Timothy H. Parsons (eds.). Mapping Migration, Identity, and Space . Springer International Publishing. p. 221-. ISBN 978-3-319-77955-3 . Archived from the original on 25 May 2021 . Retrieved 25 May 2021 . ^ Daphna Golan-Agnon, Teaching Palestine on an Israeli University Campus:Unsettling Denial , Archived 10 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine Anthern Press 2020 ISBN 978-1-785-27502-9 p.57. ^ Cite error: The named reference exchange was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Bacon, Tareq (14 May 2021). \"Sheikh Jarrah and After\" . London Review of Books . Archived from the original on 17 May 2021 . Retrieved 17 May 2021 . ^ Magid, Jacob (7 May 2021). \"UN: Pending Israeli evictions in East Jerusalem could be a 'war crime' \" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 24 May 2021 . Retrieved 24 May 2021 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Samir Kuntar",
   "pageid": 18581605,
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   "lead_before": "Lebanese militant Samir Kuntar ( Arabic : سمير القنطار , also transcribed Sameer , Kantar , Quntar , Qantar ; 20 July 1962 – 19 December 2015) was a Lebanese militant who was a member of the Palestinian Liberation Front (PLF). In 1979, he took part in the Nahariya attack in Israel, for which an Israeli court would convict him of murder and terrorism. He was eventually released as part of the 2008 Israel–Hezbollah prisoner exchange . Samir Kuntar was born to a Druze family in Lebanon and joined Palestinian militants in Lebanon at a young age. In 1979 at the age of 16, Kuntar and three other PLF militants snuck into Nahariya , Israel, by boat. Their goal was to capture Israelis and force Israel into a prisoner exchange, but the \"raid went horribly wrong\". In the end, two Israeli police officers and two Israeli civilians were dead, as were two of the PLF members. Kuntar denied killing the Israeli civilians and said they had been killed by Israeli forces as they shot at him and the PLF militants. But Israeli authorities accused Kuntar of murdering two Israeli civilians, a father and his four year old daughter, in cold blood, and an Israeli court convicted Kuntar of murder. Thus, Kuntar came to be \"reviled as a child-murdering monster in Israel\". After Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah began to campaign for the release of all Lebanese citizens from Israel. Israel's refusal to release Kuntar (and other Lebanese citizens) was cited as the justification for the 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid , which lead to the 2006 Lebanon War . After the war, Kuntar was released from prison as part of the 2008 Israel–Hezbollah prisoner exchange . His arrival in Lebanon was greeted by crowds of tens of thousands of people, as well as Lebanese Prime Minister Fuad Sinora . He continued to be celebrated, receiving Syria's highest medal, and later being honored by Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad . The US government designated him as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist . According to some sources, Kuntar took part in the Syrian Civil War . On 19 December 2015, Kuntar was killed by an explosion in the outskirts of Damascus. According to official Syrian sources, Kuntar was killed by \"terrorist rocket attack\". On 20 December 2015, Syrian Information Minister Omran al-Zoubi described the incident as a terrorist operation \"plotted beforehand\", commenting that Syrian authorities were carrying out an investigation to find out how the operation happened. Hezbollah said that the building was destroyed by an air-to-surface missile launched by Israeli Air Force jets . On 21 December, the Free Syrian Army released a video clip claiming responsibility for killing Kuntar. ^ Cite error: The named reference Smith was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Octavia Nasr (July 16, 2008). \"Brother of convicted Lebanese killer says he's innocent\" . CNN . Retrieved November 4, 2013 . ^ Cite error: The named reference sela was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Tarabay, Jamie (September 18, 2006). \"Spark for Israel-Hezbollah War Unresolved\" . NPR . Retrieved August 29, 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference kotesbar was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Wahab, Hadi (2022). Hezbollah:A Regional Armed Non-State Actor . Taylor & Francis . p. 69. ^ Slackman, Michael (July 17, 2008). \"Prisoners' Homecoming a Triumph for Hezbollah\" . The New York Times . ^ \"Assad awards convicted murderer Kuntar Syria's highest medal\" . Haaretz . November 24, 2008. Archived from the original on March 15, 2009 . Retrieved December 20, 2015 . ^ Ahmadinejad to honor child killer Kuntar The Jerusalem Post January 30, 2009 ^ \"US Blacklists 4 Hamas, Hezbollah Operatives\" . NYTimes. September 8, 2015. ^ \"Terrorist Designation of Samir Kuntar\" 8 September 2015, United States Department of State ^ Melman, Yossi; Amir, Noam (June 24, 2015). \"Lebanese terrorist Samir Kuntar blamed for inciting Druse violence on Golan Heights\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved December 22, 2015 . ^ Barry Temmo (December 20, 2015). \"Liberated prisoner from Israeli jails Samir Kuntar killed in terrorist shelling attack\" . SANA . ^ \"Hezbollah: Samir Kuntar killed in Israeli airstrike on Damascus\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on December 20, 2015 . Retrieved December 20, 2015 . ^ \"Longest-serving Lebanese prisoner in Israel killed in Syria\" . The Big Story . Archived from the original on December 20, 2015 . Retrieved December 20, 2015 . ^ Roi Kais, Yoav Zitun, Liad Osmo, 'Hezbollah: Samir Kuntar, murderer of Haran family, killed in airstrike,' Ynet 20 December 2015. ^ \"Free Syrian Army rebels claim Samir Kuntar assassination\" . i24news . December 21, 2015 . Retrieved December 22, 2015 . ^ \"Free Syrian Army: Hezbollah is lying, we killed Kuntar, not Israel\" . Jerusalem Post . December 21, 2015 . Retrieved December 22, 2015 .",
   "lead_after": "Lebanese militant Samir Kuntar ( Arabic : سمير القنطار , also transcribed Sameer , Kantar , Quntar , Qantar ; 20 July 1962 – 19 December 2015) was a Lebanese militant who was a member of the Palestinian Liberation Front (PLF). In 1979, he took part in the Nahariya attack in Israel, for which an Israeli court would convict him of murder and terrorism. He was eventually released as part of the 2008 Israel–Hezbollah prisoner exchange . Samir Kuntar was born to a Druze family in Lebanon and joined Palestinian militants in Lebanon at a young age. In 1979 at the age of 16, Kuntar and three other PLF militants snuck into Nahariya , Israel, by boat. Their goal was to capture Israelis and force Israel into a prisoner exchange, but the \"raid went horribly wrong\". In the end, two Israeli police officers and two Israeli civilians were dead, as were two of the PLF members. Kuntar denied killing the Israeli civilians and said they had been killed by Israeli forces as they shot at him and the PLF militants. But Israeli authorities accused Kuntar of murdering two Israeli civilians, a father and his four year old daughter, in cold blood, and an Israeli court convicted Kuntar of murder. Thus, Kuntar came to be \"reviled as a child-murdering monster in Israel\". After Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah began to campaign for the release of all Lebanese citizens from Israel. Israel's refusal to release Kuntar (and other Lebanese citizens) was cited as the justification for the 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid , which lead to the 2006 Lebanon War . After the war, Kuntar was released from prison as part of the 2008 Israel–Hezbollah prisoner exchange . His arrival in Lebanon was greeted by crowds of tens of thousands of people, as well as Lebanese Prime Minister Fuad Sinora . He continued to be celebrated, receiving Syria's highest medal, and later being honored by Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad . The US government designated him as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist . According to some sources, Kuntar took part in the Syrian Civil War . On 19 December 2015, Kuntar was killed by an explosion in the outskirts of Damascus. According to official Syrian sources, Kuntar was killed by \"terrorist rocket attack\". On 20 December 2015, Syrian Information Minister Omran al-Zoubi described the incident as a terrorist operation \"plotted beforehand\", commenting that Syrian authorities were carrying out an investigation to find out how the operation happened. Hezbollah said that the building was destroyed by an air-to-surface missile launched by Israeli Air Force jets . On 21 December, the Free Syrian Army released a video clip claiming responsibility for killing Kuntar. ^ Cite error: The named reference Smith was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Octavia Nasr (July 16, 2008). \"Brother of convicted Lebanese killer says he's innocent\" . CNN . Retrieved November 4, 2013 . ^ Cite error: The named reference sela was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Tarabay, Jamie (September 18, 2006). \"Spark for Israel-Hezbollah War Unresolved\" . NPR . Retrieved August 29, 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference kotesbar was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Wahab, Hadi (2022). Hezbollah:A Regional Armed Non-State Actor . Taylor & Francis . p. 69. ^ Slackman, Michael (July 17, 2008). \"Prisoners' Homecoming a Triumph for Hezbollah\" . The New York Times . ^ \"Assad awards convicted murderer Kuntar Syria's highest medal\" . Haaretz . November 24, 2008. Archived from the original on March 15, 2009 . Retrieved December 20, 2015 . ^ Ahmadinejad to honor child killer Kuntar The Jerusalem Post January 30, 2009 ^ \"US Blacklists 4 Hamas, Hezbollah Operatives\" . NYTimes. September 8, 2015. ^ \"Terrorist Designation of Samir Kuntar\" 8 September 2015, United States Department of State ^ Melman, Yossi; Amir, Noam (June 24, 2015). \"Lebanese terrorist Samir Kuntar blamed for inciting Druse violence on Golan Heights\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved December 22, 2015 . ^ Barry Temmo (December 20, 2015). \"Liberated prisoner from Israeli jails Samir Kuntar killed in terrorist shelling attack\" . SANA . ^ \"Hezbollah: Samir Kuntar killed in Israeli airstrike on Damascus\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on December 20, 2015 . Retrieved December 20, 2015 . ^ \"Longest-serving Lebanese prisoner in Israel killed in Syria\" . The Big Story . Archived from the original on December 20, 2015 . Retrieved December 20, 2015 . ^ Roi Kais, Yoav Zitun, Liad Osmo, 'Hezbollah: Samir Kuntar, murderer of Haran family, killed in airstrike,' Ynet 20 December 2015. ^ \"Free Syrian Army rebels claim Samir Kuntar assassination\" . i24news . December 21, 2015 . Retrieved December 22, 2015 . ^ \"Free Syrian Army: Hezbollah is lying, we killed Kuntar, not Israel\" . Jerusalem Post . December 21, 2015 . Retrieved December 22, 2015 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Yahya Ayyash",
   "pageid": 368128,
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   "lead_before": "Palestinian militant and bombmaker (1966–1996) Yahya Ayyash ( Arabic : يحيى عياش , romanized : Yaḥyā ʿAyyāš , pronounced [jaħjaː ʕajːaʃ] ; 6 March 1966 – 5 January 1996) was the chief bombmaker of Hamas and the leader of the West Bank battalion of the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades . In that capacity, he earned the nickname \" the Engineer \" ( Arabic : المهندس , romanized : al-Muhandis ). Ayyash is credited with advancing the technique of suicide bombings against Israel by Palestinian militant groups . The bombings he orchestrated killed approximately 90 Israelis, many of them civilians. He was assassinated by the Shin Bet on January 5, 1996, through a booby-trapped mobile phone. Ayyash is celebrated by local Palestinian communities who have named streets and other locales in his honor. His name was also given to the rocket Ayyash-250 produced by Hamas . ^ Katz 2002 , p. 256 ^ Former Shin Bet director Carmi Gillon confirmed the story in the documentary The Gatekeepers . ^ Hassan, Jennifer; Javaid, Maham (31 July 2024). \"Israel has a long history of assassination operations across borders\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 5 August 2024 . Retrieved 17 September 2024 . ^ \"20 years ago this week - Israel assassinates 'The Engineer' \" . The Jerusalem Post . 9 January 2016. ISSN 0792-822X . Archived from the original on 16 January 2024 . Retrieved 17 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Katz, 260 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference itic was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Goldberg, J.J. (4 August 2015). \"The Problem With Netanyahu's Response to Jewish Terror\" . The Forward . Archived from the original on 26 December 2016 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ \"Hamas makes unverified claim it's using new rocket that can hit all of Israel\" . The Times of Israel . 13 May 2021 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 .",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian militant and bombmaker (1966–1996) Yahya Ayyash ( Arabic : يحيى عياش , romanized : Yaḥyā ʿAyyāš , pronounced [jaħjaː ʕajːaʃ] ; 6 March 1966 – 5 January 1996) was the chief bombmaker of Hamas and the leader of the West Bank battalion of the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades . In that capacity, he earned the nickname \" the Engineer \" ( Arabic : المهندس , romanized : al-Muhandis ). Ayyash is credited with advancing the technique of suicide bombings against Israel by Palestinian militant groups . The bombings he orchestrated killed approximately 90 Israelis, many of them civilians. He was assassinated by the Shin Bet on January 5, 1996, through a booby-trapped mobile phone. Ayyash is celebrated by local Palestinian communities who have named streets and other locales in his honor. His name was also given to the rocket Ayyash-250 produced by Hamas . ^ Katz 2002 , p. 256 ^ Former Shin Bet director Carmi Gillon confirmed the story in the documentary The Gatekeepers . ^ Hassan, Jennifer; Javaid, Maham (31 July 2024). \"Israel has a long history of assassination operations across borders\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 5 August 2024 . Retrieved 17 September 2024 . ^ \"20 years ago this week - Israel assassinates 'The Engineer' \" . The Jerusalem Post . 9 January 2016. ISSN 0792-822X . Archived from the original on 16 January 2024 . Retrieved 17 September 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Katz, 260 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference itic was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Goldberg, J.J. (4 August 2015). \"The Problem With Netanyahu's Response to Jewish Terror\" . The Forward . Archived from the original on 26 December 2016 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 . ^ \"Hamas makes unverified claim it's using new rocket that can hit all of Israel\" . The Times of Israel . 13 May 2021 . Retrieved 26 June 2024 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Izz ad-Din al-Qassam",
   "pageid": 554241,
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   "lead_before": "Syrian Muslim preacher (1882–1935) For the military wing of Hamas, see Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades . ʿIzz ad-Dīn ibn Abd al-Qāder ibn Mustafā ibn Yūsuf ibn Muhammad al-Qassām ( Arabic : عز الدين بن عبد القادر بن مصطفى بن يوسف بن محمد القسام ; 1881 or 19 December 1882 – 20 November 1935) was a Syrian Muslim preacher, activist, and leader in the struggles against the French in Syria and the British in Palestine , as well as an opponent of Zionism in the 1920s and 1930s. Qassam was born in Jableh , Syrian province of the Ottoman Empire in 1882. He studied at Al-Azhar University in Egypt and afterward became an Islamic revivalist preacher in his hometown. Following his return, he became an active supporter of the Libyan resistance to the Italian occupation starting 1911, raising funds and fighters to aid the Libyans and penning an anthem for them. He would later lead his own group of rebels in alliance with Ibrahim Hananu to fight against the French Mandate in northern Syria ratified on 29 September 1923. Following the rebels' defeat, he immigrated to Palestine , where he became a Muslim waqf (religious endowment) official and grew incensed at the plight of Palestinian Arab peasants. He advocated a moral, political and military jihad as the solution to end British rule and Zionist aspirations in Palestine. In the 1930s, he formed bands of local fighters, including the Black Hand , and launched attacks against British and Zionist targets. He was eventually killed in a manhunt by the British authorities in 1935, following his alleged role in the killing of a policeman. Israeli historian Tom Segev has called him \"the Arab Joseph Trumpeldor \". His campaign and death were factors that led to the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine . ^ Abū ʻAmr, 1994, p. 98. ^ Krämer, 2011, p. 260 ^ Guidère, 2012, p. 173 ^ Mattar, Philip (1 March 2018), \"al-Qassām, ʿIzz al-Dīn\", Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.), doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_40454 , retrieved 18 April 2026 ^ Bloomfield, 2010, p. 149. ^ Fleischmann, 2003, p. 292. ^ Kayyali, 1978, p. 180. ^ Lozowick, 2004, p. 78. ^ Segev, 2001, pp. 362–363.",
   "lead_after": "Syrian Muslim preacher (1882–1935) For the military wing of Hamas, see Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades . ʿIzz ad-Dīn ibn Abd al-Qāder ibn Mustafā ibn Yūsuf ibn Muhammad al-Qassām ( Arabic : عز الدين بن عبد القادر بن مصطفى بن يوسف بن محمد القسام ; 1881 or 19 December 1882 – 20 November 1935) was a Syrian Muslim preacher, activist, and leader in the struggles against the French in Syria and the British in Palestine , as well as an opponent of Zionism in the 1920s and 1930s. Qassam was born in Jableh , Syrian province of the Ottoman Empire in 1882. He studied at Al-Azhar University in Egypt and afterward became an Islamic revivalist preacher in his hometown. Following his return, he became an active supporter of the Libyan resistance to the Italian occupation starting 1911, raising funds and fighters to aid the Libyans and penning an anthem for them. He would later lead his own group of rebels in alliance with Ibrahim Hananu to fight against the French Mandate in northern Syria ratified on 29 September 1923. Following the rebels' defeat, he immigrated to Palestine , where he became a Muslim waqf (religious endowment) official and grew incensed at the plight of Palestinian Arab peasants. He advocated a moral, political and military jihad as the solution to end British rule and Zionist aspirations in Palestine. In the 1930s, he formed bands of local fighters, including the Black Hand , and launched attacks against British and Zionist targets. He was eventually killed in a manhunt by the British authorities in 1935, following his alleged role in the killing of a policeman. Israeli historian Tom Segev has called him \"the Arab Joseph Trumpeldor \". His campaign and death were factors that led to the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine . ^ Abū ʻAmr, 1994, p. 98. ^ Krämer, 2011, p. 260 ^ Guidère, 2012, p. 173 ^ Mattar, Philip (1 March 2018), \"al-Qassām, ʿIzz al-Dīn\", Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.), doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_40454 , retrieved 18 April 2026 ^ Bloomfield, 2010, p. 149. ^ Fleischmann, 2003, p. 292. ^ Kayyali, 1978, p. 180. ^ Lozowick, 2004, p. 78. ^ Segev, 2001, pp. 362–363."
  },
  {
   "title": "Hasbara",
   "pageid": 1063391,
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hasbara&oldid=1366043778",
   "lead_before": "Public relations work by the State of Israel Hasbara ( Hebrew : הַסְבָּרָה ) is the public diplomacy of Israel . It includes mass communication , individual interaction with foreign nationals through social and traditional media , and cultural diplomacy . Organizations involved include the IDF Spokesperson's Unit , Prime Minister's Office , Ministry of Foreign Affairs , and pro-Israel civil society organizations. These efforts were openly called \" propaganda \" by the early Zionists who promoted them, with Theodor Herzl advocating such activities in 1899, stating \"we simply speak the truth\". Nahum Sokolow introduced the term hasbara , which literally means \"explaining\". It seeks to justify Israeli state actions and is considered reactive and event-driven. ^ Kouts, Gideon (2016). \"From Sokolow to 'Explaining Israel': The Zionist \"Hasbara\" First \"Campaign Strategy Paper\" and Its Applications\" . Revue Européenne des Études Hébraïques (18): 103– 146. ISSN 1280-9640 . JSTOR 26624281 . Archived from the original on 1 August 2021 . Retrieved 1 August 2021 . ^ Hamad, Sam (18 November 2023). \"Understanding Hasbara: Israel's propaganda machine\" . The New Arab . Retrieved 1 October 2025 .",
   "lead_after": "Public relations work by the State of Israel Hasbara ( Hebrew : הַסְבָּרָה ) is the public diplomacy of Israel . It includes mass communication , individual interaction with foreign nationals through social and traditional media , and cultural diplomacy . Organizations involved include the IDF Spokesperson's Unit , Prime Minister's Office , Ministry of Foreign Affairs , and pro-Israel civil society organizations. Early Zionists wanted to persuade others to support their cause. Nahum Sokolow introduced the term hasbara , which literally means \"explaining\". It seeks to justify Israeli state actions and has been called reactive and event-driven. ^ Kouts, Gideon (2016). \"From Sokolow to 'Explaining Israel': The Zionist \"Hasbara\" First \"Campaign Strategy Paper\" and Its Applications\" . Revue Européenne des Études Hébraïques (18): 103– 146. ISSN 1280-9640 . JSTOR 26624281 . Archived from the original on 1 August 2021 . Retrieved 1 August 2021 . ^ Hamad, Sam (18 November 2023). \"Understanding Hasbara: Israel's propaganda machine\" . The New Arab . Retrieved 1 October 2025 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Mizrahi Jews",
   "pageid": 698511,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-15T15:22:15Z",
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   "lead_before": "Jewish diaspora of Africa and Asia Not to be confused with Mizraim . For other entities and people named \"Mizrachi\", see Mizrachi (disambiguation) . \"Oriental Jews\" redirects here. For other uses, see Jews of the Orient . Ethnic group History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e Mizrahi Jews ( Hebrew : יהודי המִזְרָח ), also known as Mizrahim ( מִזְרָחִים ) in plural and Mizrahi ( מִזְרָחִי ) in singular, and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or Edot HaMizrach ( עֲדוֹת־הַמִּזְרָח , lit. ' Communities of the East ' ), are a grouping of Jewish communities that lived in the Muslim world . Mizrahi is a politico-sociological term that was coined with the creation of the State of Israel . It translates as \"Easterner\" in Hebrew. The term Mizrahi is exclusively applied to descendants of Jewish communities throughout Asia , North Africa , and parts of the North Caucasus . This includes Iraqi Jews , Iranian Jews , Bukharian Jews , Kurdish Jews , Afghan Jews , Mountain Jews , Georgian Jews , and the small community of Bahraini Jews . The aforementioned groups are believed to derive their ancestry from the Babylonian captivity . Yemenite Jews are also Mizrahi Jews, although they differ from other Mizrahim, who have undergone a process of total or partial assimilation to Sephardic law and customs . Syrian Jews , Egyptian Jews , Tunisian Jews , Moroccan Jews , Algerian Jews , and Libyan Jews (also known as Musta'arabi Jews or Maghrebi Jews ) are sometimes labeled as Mizrahim, although these groups largely merged with the mass arrival of Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula , following their late 15th-century expulsion from Spain and Portugal. The vast majority of Maghrebi Jews (Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian) are Sephardim. Maghrebi is an Arabic term which translates to \"Westerners.\" Indian Jews (specifically Cochin Jews and Bene Israel ) are sometimes labeled as Mizrahi, although members of the community identify as a separate category, as South Asian. These various Jewish communities were first officially grouped into a singular identifiable division during World War II , when they were distinctly outlined in the One Million Plan of the Jewish Agency for Israel , which detailed Jewish immigration schema to Palestine (then under the British Mandate for Palestine ) after the Holocaust . An earlier cultural community of Eastern Jewish peoples were the Sephardim . Before the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the ancestors of various communities now labelled \"Mizrahi Jews\" did not identify themselves as a distinctive Jewish subgroup, and many considered themselves Sephardim, as they largely followed the Sephardic customs and traditions of Judaism , with local variations in minhagim . The original Sephardi Jewish community was formed in Spain and Portugal , and after their expulsion in 1492 , many Sephardim settled in areas where older Jewish communities already existed. This complicated ethnography has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in official Israeli ethnic and religious terminology, with Sephardi being used in a broad sense to include Mizrahi Jews, as well as Sephardim proper from southern Europe and northern Africa (where the majority of Sephardim historically lived) around the Mediterranean Basin . The Chief Rabbinate of Israel has placed rabbis of Mizrahi origin in Israel under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi chief rabbis. Following the First Arab–Israeli War , 850,000 Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews emigrated or were expelled from Central Asia, West Asia, the Caucasus, and North Africa between 1948 and the early 1980s. A 2018 statistic found that 45 percent of Jewish-Israelis self-identified as either Mizrahi or Sephardi. ^ \"2024 אוכלוסיית ישראלבפתחהשל שנת\" (PDF) . www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew) . Retrieved 28 December 2023 . ^ Lewin-Epstein, Noah; Cohen, Yinon (18 August 2019). \"Ethnic origin and identity in the Jewish population of Israel\". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies . 45 (11): 2118– 2137. doi : 10.1080/1369183X.2018.1492370 . ISSN 1369-183X . S2CID 149653977 . ^ Mitchell, Travis (11 May 2021). \"1. The size of the U.S. Jewish population\" . pewresearch.org . Pew Research Center . Retrieved 9 June 2024 . ^ \"Mizrahi Jews\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ Shohat, Ella (1999). \"The Invention of the Mizrahim\". Journal of Palestine Studies . 29 (1): 5– 20. doi : 10.2307/2676427 . JSTOR 2676427 . ^ Cohen, Hadar (29 November 2022). \"Mizrahi Remembrance Month: Reclaiming our stories\" . The New Arab . ^ Shohat, Ella (May 2001). \"Rupture And Return: A Mizrahi Perspective On The Zionist Discourse\" . The MIT Electronic Journal of Middle East Studies . Archived from the original (DOC) on 12 May 2004 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ \"Who Are the Mizrahi (Oriental/Arab) Jews? - Israeli-Palestinian - ProCon.org\" . Israeli-Palestinian . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ \"Mizrahi Jews in Israel\" . My Jewish Learning . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ \"Ancient Jewish History: Jews of the Middle East\" . JVL . ^ Mazzig, Hen (20 May 2019). \"Op-Ed: No, Israel isn't a country of privileged and powerful white Europeans\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 1 December 2023 . ^ The Wellspring of Georgian Historiography: The Early Medieval Historical Chronicle The Conversion of Katli and The Life of St. Nino, Constantine B. Lerner, England: Bennett and Bloom, London, 2004, p. 60 ^ Dekel, Mikhal (19 October 2019). \"When Iran Welcomed Jewish Refugees\" . ^ Birvadker, Oshrit (17 December 2021). \"Between East and the Middle East: The Integration Story of the Indian Jewish Community in Israel\" . jstribune . ^ Eyal, Gil (2006), \"The \"One Million Plan\" and the Development of a Discourse about the Absorption of the Jews from Arab Countries\" , The Disenchantment of the Orient: Expertise in Arab Affairs and the Israeli State , Stanford University Press, pp. 86– 89, ISBN 978-0-8047-5403-3 : \"The principal significance of this plan lies in the fact, noted by Yehuda Shenhav, that this was the first time in Zionist history that Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries were all packaged together in one category as the target of an immigration plan. There were earlier plans to bring specific groups, such as the Yemenites, but the \"one million plan\" was, as Shenhav says, \"the zero point\", the moment when the category of Mizrahi Jews in the current sense of this term, as an ethnic group distinct from European-born Jews, was invented.\" ^ katzcenterupenn. \"What Do You Know? Sephardi vs. Mizrahi\" . Herbert D. Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ \"Sephardi | Meaning, Customs, History, & Facts\" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ Hoge, Warren (5 November 2007). \"Group seeks justice for 'forgotten' Jews\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 12 January 2019 . ^ Aharoni, Ada (2003). \"The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries\". Peace Review . 15 : 53– 60. doi : 10.1080/1040265032000059742 . S2CID 145345386 . ^ \"House Adopts Bi-Partisan Resolution to Recognize Jewish Refugees\" . Congressman Jerry Nadler . 31 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 March 2026 . ^ Aderet, Ofer. \"Arab-Jewish refugees still dream of compensation, nearly 70 years on\" . Haaretz.com . Archived from the original on 19 December 2024 . Retrieved 15 March 2026 . ^ \"Ethnic origin and identity in the Jewish population of Israel\" (PDF) . Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 27 June 2018 . Retrieved 26 September 2019 .",
   "lead_after": "Jewish diaspora of Africa and Asia Not to be confused with Mizraim . For other entities and people named \"Mizrachi\", see Mizrachi (disambiguation) . \"Oriental Jews\" redirects here. For other uses, see Jews of the Orient . Ethnic group History Communities Population Denominations Orthodox Modern Haredi Hasidic Reform Conservative Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Science Haymanot Humanistic Culture Languages Hebrew Biblical Mishnaic Medieval Modern Bukharian Ghardaïa Sign Jewish Koine Greek Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Aramaic Judeo-Berber Judeo-Gascon Judaeo-Georgian Judaeo-Iranian Judeo-Italian Judeo-Malayalam Judaeo-Spanish Judeo-Tat Knaanic Shassi Yeshivish Yevanic Yiddish Zarphatic Politics Category Portal v t e Mizrahi Jews ( Hebrew : יהודי המִזְרָח ), also known as Mizrahim ( מִזְרָחִים ) in plural and Mizrahi ( מִזְרָחִי ) in singular, and alternatively referred to as Oriental Jews or Edot HaMizrach ( עֲדוֹת־הַמִּזְרָח , lit. ' Communities of the East ' ), are a grouping of Jewish communities that lived in the Muslim world . Mizrahi is a politico-sociological term that was coined with the creation of the State of Israel . It translates as \"Easterner\" in Hebrew. The term Mizrahi is exclusively applied to descendants of Jewish communities throughout Asia , North Africa , and parts of the North Caucasus . This includes Iraqi Jews , Iranian Jews , Bukharian Jews , Kurdish Jews , Afghan Jews , Mountain Jews , Georgian Jews , and the small community of Bahraini Jews . The aforementioned groups are believed to derive their ancestry from the Babylonian captivity . Yemenite Jews are also Mizrahi Jews, although they differ from other Mizrahim, who have undergone a process of total or partial assimilation to Sephardic law and customs . Syrian Jews , Egyptian Jews , Tunisian Jews , Moroccan Jews , Algerian Jews , and Libyan Jews (also known as Musta'arabi Jews or Maghrebi Jews ) are sometimes labeled as Mizrahim, although these groups largely merged with the mass arrival of Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula , following their late 15th-century expulsion from Spain and Portugal. The vast majority of Maghrebi Jews (Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian) are Sephardim. Maghrebi is an Arabic term which translates to \"Westerners.\" Indian Jews (specifically Cochin Jews and Bene Israel ) are sometimes labeled as Mizrahi, although members of the community identify as a separate category, as South Asian. These various Jewish communities were first officially grouped into a singular identifiable division during World War II , when they were distinctly outlined in the One Million Plan of the Jewish Agency for Israel , which detailed Jewish immigration schema to Palestine (then under the British Mandate for Palestine ) after the Holocaust . An earlier cultural community of Eastern Jewish peoples were the Sephardim . Before the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, the ancestors of various communities now labelled \"Mizrahi Jews\" did not identify themselves as a distinctive Jewish subgroup, and many considered themselves Sephardim, as they largely followed the Sephardic customs and traditions of Judaism , with local variations in minhagim . The original Sephardi Jewish community was formed in Spain and Portugal , and after their expulsion in 1492 , many Sephardim settled in areas where older Jewish communities already existed. This complicated ethnography has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in official Israeli ethnic and religious terminology, with Sephardi being used in a broad sense to include Mizrahi Jews, as well as Sephardim proper from southern Europe and northern Africa (where the majority of Sephardim historically lived) around the Mediterranean Basin . The Chief Rabbinate of Israel has placed rabbis of Mizrahi origin in Israel under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi chief rabbis. Following the First Arab–Israeli War , 850,000 Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews emigrated or were expelled from Central Asia, West Asia, the Caucasus, and North Africa between 1948 and the early 1980s. A 2018 statistic found that 45 percent of Jewish-Israelis self-identified as either Mizrahi or Sephardi. ^ \"2024 אוכלוסיית ישראלבפתחהשל שנת\" (PDF) . www.cbs.gov.il (in Hebrew) . Retrieved 28 December 2023 . ^ Lewin-Epstein, Noah; Cohen, Yinon (18 August 2019). \"Ethnic origin and identity in the Jewish population of Israel\". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies . 45 (11): 2118– 2137. doi : 10.1080/1369183X.2018.1492370 . ISSN 1369-183X . S2CID 149653977 . ^ Mitchell, Travis (11 May 2021). \"1. The size of the U.S. Jewish population\" . pewresearch.org . Pew Research Center . Retrieved 9 June 2024 . ^ \"Mizrahi Jews\" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ Shohat, Ella (1999). \"The Invention of the Mizrahim\". Journal of Palestine Studies . 29 (1): 5– 20. doi : 10.2307/2676427 . JSTOR 2676427 . ^ Cohen, Hadar (29 November 2022). \"Mizrahi Remembrance Month: Reclaiming our stories\" . The New Arab . ^ Shohat, Ella (May 2001). \"Rupture And Return: A Mizrahi Perspective On The Zionist Discourse\" . The MIT Electronic Journal of Middle East Studies . Archived from the original (DOC) on 12 May 2004 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ \"Who Are the Mizrahi (Oriental/Arab) Jews? - Israeli-Palestinian - ProCon.org\" . Israeli-Palestinian . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ \"Mizrahi Jews in Israel\" . My Jewish Learning . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ \"Ancient Jewish History: Jews of the Middle East\" . JVL . ^ Mazzig, Hen (20 May 2019). \"Op-Ed: No, Israel isn't a country of privileged and powerful white Europeans\" . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved 1 December 2023 . ^ The Wellspring of Georgian Historiography: The Early Medieval Historical Chronicle The Conversion of Katli and The Life of St. Nino, Constantine B. Lerner, England: Bennett and Bloom, London, 2004, p. 60 ^ Dekel, Mikhal (19 October 2019). \"When Iran Welcomed Jewish Refugees\" . ^ Birvadker, Oshrit (17 December 2021). \"Between East and the Middle East: The Integration Story of the Indian Jewish Community in Israel\" . jstribune . ^ Eyal, Gil (2006), \"The \"One Million Plan\" and the Development of a Discourse about the Absorption of the Jews from Arab Countries\" , The Disenchantment of the Orient: Expertise in Arab Affairs and the Israeli State , Stanford University Press, pp. 86– 89, ISBN 978-0-8047-5403-3 : \"The principal significance of this plan lies in the fact, noted by Yehuda Shenhav, that this was the first time in Zionist history that Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries were all packaged together in one category as the target of an immigration plan. There were earlier plans to bring specific groups, such as the Yemenites, but the \"one million plan\" was, as Shenhav says, \"the zero point\", the moment when the category of Mizrahi Jews in the current sense of this term, as an ethnic group distinct from European-born Jews, was invented.\" ^ katzcenterupenn. \"What Do You Know? Sephardi vs. Mizrahi\" . Herbert D. Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ \"Sephardi | Meaning, Customs, History, & Facts\" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ Hoge, Warren (5 November 2007). \"Group seeks justice for 'forgotten' Jews\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 12 January 2019 . ^ Aharoni, Ada (2003). \"The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries\". Peace Review . 15 : 53– 60. doi : 10.1080/1040265032000059742 . S2CID 145345386 . ^ \"House Adopts Bi-Partisan Resolution to Recognize Jewish Refugees\" . Congressman Jerry Nadler . 31 March 2008 . Retrieved 15 March 2026 . ^ Aderet, Ofer. \"Arab-Jewish refugees still dream of compensation, nearly 70 years on\" . Haaretz.com . Archived from the original on 19 December 2024 . Retrieved 15 March 2026 . ^ \"Ethnic origin and identity in the Jewish population of Israel\" (PDF) . Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 27 June 2018 . Retrieved 26 September 2019 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "B'Tselem",
   "pageid": 39913759,
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B'Tselem&oldid=1366104640",
   "lead_before": "Non-profit human rights organization B'Tselem ( Hebrew : בְּצֶלֶם , IPA: [beˈtselem] ; transl. \"In the Image [of God] \" ; Arabic : بتسيلم ), also known as the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories , is a Jerusalem -based Israeli nonprofit organization aiming to document human rights violations in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian territories , combat any denial of the existence of such violations, and help create a human rights culture in Israel . It is headed by Yuli Novak , who took over in June 2023 from Hagai El-Ad . B'Tselem also maintains a presence in Washington, D.C. , where it is known as B'Tselem USA . The organization is controversial within Israel, with reactions ranging from harsh criticism to strong praise. ^ \"About B'Tselem\" . B'Tselem. Archived from the original on 29 January 2010 . Retrieved 2 February 2010 . ^ \"A regime of Jewish supremacy from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea: This is apartheid\" . B'Tselem. 12 January 2021 . Retrieved 15 May 2021 . ^ \"B'Tselem's Staff\" . B'Tselem . Retrieved 28 October 2023 . ^ \"Yuli Novak – B'Tselem's new executive director\" . B'Tselem . 26 June 2023 . Retrieved 28 October 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Non-profit human rights organization B'Tselem ( Hebrew : בְּצֶלֶם , IPA: [beˈtselem] ; transl. \"In the Image [of God] \" ; Arabic : بتسيلم ), also known as the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories , is a Jerusalem -based Israeli nonprofit organization aiming to document human rights violations in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian territories , combat any denial of the existence of such violations, and help create a human rights culture in Israel . It is headed by Yuli Novak , who took over in June 2023 from Hagai El-Ad . B'Tselem also maintains a presence in Washington, D.C. , where it is known as B'Tselem USA . The organization is controversial within Israel, with reactions ranging from harsh criticism to strong praise. ^ \"About B'Tselem\" . B'Tselem. Archived from the original on 29 January 2010 . Retrieved 2 February 2010 . ^ \"A regime of Jewish supremacy from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea: This is apartheid\" . B'Tselem. 12 January 2021 . Retrieved 15 May 2021 . ^ \"B'Tselem's Staff\" . B'Tselem . Retrieved 28 October 2023 . ^ \"Yuli Novak – B'Tselem's new executive director\" . B'Tselem . 26 June 2023 . Retrieved 28 October 2023 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Mohammed Deif",
   "pageid": 92534,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-19T14:03:35Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mohammed_Deif&oldid=1361065379",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mohammed_Deif&oldid=1364957786",
   "lead_before": "Palestinian Hamas militant (1965–2024) This article is about the former head of the Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades. For for other people named Mohammed al-Masri, see Muhammad al-Misry . Mohammed Diab Ibrahim al-Masri ( Arabic : محمد دياب إبراهيم المصري , romanized : Muḥammad Diyāb Ibrāhīm al-Maṣrī ;‎ 12 August 1965 – 13 July 2024), better known as Mohammed Deif (Arabic: محمد الضيف ), was a Palestinian militant who served as the sixth commander of the Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades of Palestinian group Hamas . He succeeded Salah Shehade after the latter was killed in an Israeli airstrike in July 2002, until his own assassination by Israel in July 2024. He was succeeded by Mohammed Sinwar , the younger brother of Yahya Sinwar . He was a central figure in the Gaza war and one of the masterminds of the October 7 attacks , alongside Yahya Sinwar. Deif was born in 1965 in the Khan Yunis Refugee Camp in the Gaza Strip (at the time occupied by Egypt ), to a family that had fled or been expelled due to the 1948 Palestine war , which resulted in the creation of the state of Israel and what Palestinians call the Nakba . He reportedly left school temporarily to support his low-income family, later graduating with a bachelor's degree in chemistry from the Islamic University of Gaza in 1988, where he had established a theater group. Deif joined Hamas in 1987, weeks after it was established during the First Intifada against the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories which had been ongoing since the Six-Day War in 1967. He later became known as Mohammed Deif, meaning \"guest\" in Arabic—possibly in reference to the nomadic lifestyle he adopted to avoid being targeted. During the 1990s and early 2000s, he planned several suicide bombing attacks, including the 1996 Jaffa Road bus bombings . He became the head of the al-Qassam Brigades in 2002 and developed the group's capabilities, transforming it from a cluster of amateur cells to organized military units. He masterminded the group's strategy of combining rocket attacks on Israel with tunnel warfare , and was central to planning the October 7 attacks that initiated the Gaza war. Deif had been on the Israeli military's most wanted list since 1995 for killing Israeli soldiers and civilians. He was detained by the Palestinian Authority at Israel's request in 2000 before escaping months later. He had been targeted in multiple Israeli assassination attempts since 2001, surviving at least seven attempts on his life. His wife, infant son, and 3-year-old daughter were killed in an Israeli airstrike in 2014. The United States and the European Union added Deif to their terrorism lists in 2015 and 2023 respectively. Israel killed Deif in an airstrike on al-Mawasi on 13 July 2024 . For over six months, Hamas denied reports of his death, but eventually confirmed his death on 30 January 2025. In November 2024, the International Criminal Court (ICC) had issued an arrest warrant for Deif, claiming it was unable to verify if he had indeed been killed, but the warrant was cancelled in late February 2025 after Hamas confirmed his death. ^ Truzman, Joe (1 August 2024). \"Israel confirms Hamas commander Muhammed Deif killed in airstrike\" . FDD's Long War Journal . ^ \"IDF reveals new undated photo of shadowy Hamas commander Mohammed Deif\" . The Times of Israel . 6 January 2024. ^ Cite error: The named reference birthday was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference timesofisrael20240801 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"IDF confirms it killed Mohammed Deif in Khan Yunis attack\" . The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com . 1 August 2024. Archived from the original on 1 August 2024 . Retrieved 1 August 2024 . ^ \"Israel Says It's Confirmed Hamas Number Two Deif Was Killed\" . Bloomberg . 1 August 2024. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024 . Retrieved 1 August 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference newsweek20231027 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference R1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference washingtonpost20140802 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hamas confirms death of military chief Mohammed Deif\" . BBC News . 30 January 2025. ^ \"ICC cancels warrant for Hamas military leader Deif, weeks after group confirms death\" . timesofisrael.com . Times of Israel. 26 February 2025 . Retrieved 19 March 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Palestinian Hamas militant (1965–2024) This article is about the former head of the Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades. For for other people named Mohammed al-Masri, see Muhammad al-Misry . Mohammed Diab Ibrahim al-Masri ( Arabic : محمد دياب إبراهيم المصري , romanized : Muḥammad Diyāb Ibrāhīm al-Maṣrī ;‎ 12 August 1965 – 13 July 2024), better known as Mohammed Deif (Arabic: محمد الضيف ), was a Palestinian militant who served as the sixth commander of the Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades of Palestinian group Hamas . He succeeded Salah Shehade after the latter was killed in an Israeli airstrike in July 2002, until his own assassination by Israel in July 2024. He was succeeded by Mohammed Sinwar , the younger brother of Yahya Sinwar . He was a central figure in the Gaza war and one of the masterminds of the October 7 attacks , alongside Yahya Sinwar. Deif was born in 1965 in the Khan Yunis Refugee Camp in the Gaza Strip (at the time occupied by Egypt ), to a family that had fled or been expelled due to the 1948 war , which resulted in the creation of the state of Israel and what Palestinians call the Nakba . He reportedly left school temporarily to support his low-income family, later graduating with a bachelor's degree in chemistry from the Islamic University of Gaza in 1988, where he had established a theater group. Deif joined Hamas in 1987, weeks after it was established during the First Intifada against the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories which had been ongoing since the Six-Day War in 1967. He later became known as Mohammed Deif, meaning \"guest\" in Arabic—possibly in reference to the nomadic lifestyle he adopted to avoid being targeted. During the 1990s and early 2000s, he planned several suicide bombing attacks, including the 1996 Jaffa Road bus bombings . He became the head of the al-Qassam Brigades in 2002 and developed the group's capabilities, transforming it from a cluster of amateur cells to organized military units. He masterminded the group's strategy of combining rocket attacks on Israel with tunnel warfare , and was central to planning the October 7 attacks that initiated the Gaza war. Deif had been on the Israeli military's most wanted list since 1995 for killing Israeli soldiers and civilians. He was detained by the Palestinian Authority at Israel's request in 2000 before escaping months later. He had been targeted in multiple Israeli assassination attempts since 2001, surviving at least seven attempts on his life. His wife, infant son, and 3-year-old daughter were killed in an Israeli airstrike in 2014. The United States and the European Union added Deif to their terrorism lists in 2015 and 2023 respectively. Israel killed Deif in an airstrike on al-Mawasi on 13 July 2024 . For over six months, Hamas denied reports of his death, but eventually confirmed his death on 30 January 2025. In November 2024, the International Criminal Court (ICC) had issued an arrest warrant for Deif, claiming it was unable to verify if he had indeed been killed, but the warrant was cancelled in late February 2025 after Hamas confirmed his death. ^ Cite error: The named reference birthday was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference timesofisrael20240801 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"IDF confirms it killed Mohammed Deif in Khan Yunis attack\" . The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com . 1 August 2024. Archived from the original on 1 August 2024 . Retrieved 1 August 2024 . ^ \"Israel Says It's Confirmed Hamas Number Two Deif Was Killed\" . Bloomberg . 1 August 2024. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024 . Retrieved 1 August 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference newsweek20231027 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference R1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference washingtonpost20140802 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Hamas confirms death of military chief Mohammed Deif\" . BBC News . 30 January 2025. ^ \"ICC cancels warrant for Hamas military leader Deif, weeks after group confirms death\" . timesofisrael.com . Times of Israel. 26 February 2025 . Retrieved 19 March 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Iron Dome",
   "pageid": 18342427,
   "revid_before": 1357124879,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-25T08:56:54Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iron_Dome&oldid=1357124879",
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   "lead_before": "Israeli air defense system Short video about Iron Dome from the Israeli News Company The EL/M-2084 active electronically scanned array scaled down derivative radar of the Iron Dome US Ambassador Dan Shapiro visits the Battle Management & Control (BMC) unit of the Iron Dome in 2011. The Iron Dome ( Hebrew : כִּפַּת בַּרְזֶל , romanized : Kippat Barzel ) is an Israeli mobile all-weather air defense system , developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries . The system is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 to 70 kilometres (2–43 mi) away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area. From 2011 to 2021, the United States contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022. Iron Dome was declared operational and initially deployed on 27 March 2011 near Beersheba . On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a rocket launched from Gaza for the first time. On 10 March 2012, The Jerusalem Post reported that the system shot down 90% of rockets launched from Gaza that would have landed in populated areas. In late 2012, Israel said that it hoped to increase the range of Iron Dome's interceptions, from a maximum of 70 to 250 kilometres (43–155 mi) and make it more versatile so that it could intercept rockets coming from two directions simultaneously. In November 2012, official statements indicated that it had intercepted over 400 rockets. By late October 2014, the Iron Dome systems had intercepted over 1,200 rockets. In addition to their land-based deployment, it was reported in 2017 that Iron Dome batteries would in future be deployed at sea on Sa'ar 6-class corvettes , to protect offshore gas platforms in conjunction with Israel's Barak 8 missile system. On 11 May 2026, US Ambassador to Israel Mike Huckabee disclosed that Israel has sent Iron Dome batteries and \"personnel to help operate them\" to the UAE to counter Iranian assaults. ^ Cite error: The named reference brochure was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Vick, Karl (19 March 2013). \"The secret of the wonder weapon that Israel will show off to Obama\" . Time . . ^ Cite error: The named reference episkopos was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Lappin, Yaakov (15 July 2014). \"Tenth Iron Dome battery deployed to protect Israel from rockets\" . The Jerusalem Post . ^ \"Air Defense: U.S. Pays For More Iron Dome\" , Strategy page , retrieved 11 July 2014 . ^ Lazareva, Inna (10 July 2014). \"The Iron Dome: what is it and how does it work?\" . The Telegraph . Retrieved 10 July 2014 . ^ Ben-David, Alon (18 March 2008). \"Iron Dome advances to meet Qassam threat\" . Jane's . Retrieved 18 August 2011 . ^ \"Iron Dome Air Defense Missile System, Israel\" . Army technology . Retrieved 18 August 2011 . ^ Sharp, Jeremy M. (16 September 2010). \"U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel\" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service . Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 July 2015 . Retrieved 18 August 2011 . ^ Katz, Yaakov (10 March 2012). \"Iron Dome ups its interception rate to over 90%\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 10 March 2012 . ^ \"Israel-Gaza: How much money does Israel get from the US?\" . BBC News . 24 May 2021 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ Magid, Jacob; staff, T. O. I.; JTA. \"US House approves $1 billion for Israel's Iron Dome after months-long delay\" . The Times of Israel . ISSN 0040-7909 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ \"Israel deploys 'Iron Dome' rocket shield\" . Al Jazeera English . 27 March 2011 . Retrieved 18 August 2011 . ^ Cite error: The named reference firstInterceptAshkelon was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Williams, Dan (16 November 2012). \"Israel's Barak seeks three more Iron Dome rocket interceptors\" . Reuters . ^ Israel Defense Forces [@IDF] (18 November 2012). \"Some numbers from the last 4 days: 544 rockets fired from #Gaza hit #Israel + 302 Iron Dome interceptions=846 rockets fired at us\" ( Tweet ) . Retrieved 20 June 2025 – via Twitter . ^ Livnat, Yeal (5 April 2012). שנה ליירוט הראשון של כיפת ברזל: \"ההצלחה – בזכות הלוחמים\" [One year to first interception of Iron Dome: \"The success – because of the fighters\"] (in Hebrew). IDF Spokesperson's Unit . Archived from the original on 27 September 2013 . Retrieved 19 April 2012 . ^ Israeli Firm Adapts Iron Dome for Intercepts at Sea – Defensenews.com, 27 October 2014 ^ Report: Hezbollah Threats Prompt Israel to Add Extra Iron Fone Systems on Warships Jerusalem Post , 28 March 2017 ^ \"Israel sent Iron Dome anti-missile batteries and personnel to UAE: US envoy\" . Al Jazeera . 12 May 2026 . Retrieved 13 May 2026 .",
   "lead_after": "Israeli air defense system Short video about Iron Dome from the Israeli News Company The EL/M-2084 active electronically scanned array scaled down derivative radar of the Iron Dome US Ambassador Dan Shapiro visits the Battle Management & Control (BMC) unit of the Iron Dome in 2011. The Iron Dome ( Hebrew : כִּפַּת בַּרְזֶל , romanized : Kippat Barzel ) is an Israeli mobile all-weather air defense system , developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and Israel Aerospace Industries . The system is designed to intercept and destroy short-range rockets and artillery shells fired from distances of 4 to 70 kilometres (2–43 mi) away and whose trajectory would take them to an Israeli populated area. From 2011 to 2021, the United States contributed a total of US$1.6 billion to the Iron Dome defense system, with another US$1 billion approved by the US Congress in 2022. Iron Dome was declared operational and initially deployed on 27 March 2011 near Beersheba . On 7 April 2011, the system successfully intercepted a rocket launched from Gaza for the first time. On 10 March 2012, The Jerusalem Post reported that the system shot down 90% of rockets launched from Gaza that would have landed in populated areas. In late 2012, Israel said that it hoped to increase the range of Iron Dome's interceptions, from a maximum of 70 to 250 kilometres (43–155 mi) and make it more versatile so that it could intercept rockets coming from two directions simultaneously. In November 2012, official statements indicated that it had intercepted over 400 rockets. By late October 2014, the Iron Dome systems had intercepted over 1,200 rockets. In addition to their land-based deployment, it was reported in 2017 that Iron Dome batteries would in future be deployed at sea on Sa'ar 6-class corvettes , to protect offshore gas platforms in conjunction with Israel's Barak 8 missile system. On 11 May 2026, US Ambassador to Israel Mike Huckabee disclosed that Israel has sent Iron Dome batteries and \"personnel to help operate them\" to the UAE to counter Iranian assaults. ^ Cite error: The named reference brochure was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Vick, Karl (19 March 2013). \"The secret of the wonder weapon that Israel will show off to Obama\" . Time . . ^ Cite error: The named reference episkopos was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Lappin, Yaakov (15 July 2014). \"Tenth Iron Dome battery deployed to protect Israel from rockets\" . The Jerusalem Post . ^ \"Air Defense: U.S. Pays For More Iron Dome\" , Strategy page , retrieved 11 July 2014 . ^ Lazareva, Inna (10 July 2014). \"The Iron Dome: what is it and how does it work?\" . The Telegraph . Retrieved 10 July 2014 . ^ Ben-David, Alon (18 March 2008). \"Iron Dome advances to meet Qassam threat\" . Jane's . Retrieved 18 August 2011 . ^ \"Iron Dome Air Defense Missile System, Israel\" . Army technology . Retrieved 18 August 2011 . ^ Sharp, Jeremy M. (16 September 2010). \"U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel\" (PDF) . Congressional Research Service . Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 July 2015 . Retrieved 18 August 2011 . ^ Katz, Yaakov (10 March 2012). \"Iron Dome ups its interception rate to over 90%\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 10 March 2012 . ^ \"Israel-Gaza: How much money does Israel get from the US?\" . BBC News . 24 May 2021 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ Magid, Jacob; staff, T. O. I.; JTA. \"US House approves $1 billion for Israel's Iron Dome after months-long delay\" . The Times of Israel . ISSN 0040-7909 . Retrieved 5 April 2022 . ^ \"Israel deploys 'Iron Dome' rocket shield\" . Al Jazeera English . 27 March 2011 . Retrieved 18 August 2011 . ^ Cite error: The named reference firstInterceptAshkelon was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Williams, Dan (16 November 2012). \"Israel's Barak seeks three more Iron Dome rocket interceptors\" . Reuters . ^ Israel Defense Forces [@IDF] (18 November 2012). \"Some numbers from the last 4 days: 544 rockets fired from #Gaza hit #Israel + 302 Iron Dome interceptions=846 rockets fired at us\" ( Tweet ) . Retrieved 20 June 2025 – via Twitter . ^ Livnat, Yeal (5 April 2012). שנה ליירוט הראשון של כיפת ברזל: \"ההצלחה – בזכות הלוחמים\" [One year to first interception of Iron Dome: \"The success – because of the fighters\"] (in Hebrew). IDF Spokesperson's Unit . Archived from the original on 27 September 2013 . Retrieved 19 April 2012 . ^ Israeli Firm Adapts Iron Dome for Intercepts at Sea – Defensenews.com, 27 October 2014 ^ Report: Hezbollah Threats Prompt Israel to Add Extra Iron Fone Systems on Warships Jerusalem Post , 28 March 2017 ^ \"Israel sent Iron Dome anti-missile batteries and personnel to UAE: US envoy\" . Al Jazeera . 12 May 2026 . Retrieved 13 May 2026 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Neturei Karta",
   "pageid": 55329,
   "revid_before": 1357144847,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-24T02:45:02Z",
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   "lead_before": "Haredi Jewish anti-Zionist organization Neturei Karta ( Aramaic : נָטוֹרֵי קַרְתָּא , romanized: Nāṭōrē Qartāʾ , lit. ' Guardians of the City ' ) is a Jewish anti-Zionist organization that was founded in Jerusalem in 1938 and is primarily active in parts of Israel and the Western world . It was established by Haredi Jews originally affiliated with World Agudath Israel , which represented the most devout members of the Haredi community of the Old Yishuv . The organization's members, who adhere to stringent interpretations of Jewish religious law , are known for their religious conservatism and insular lifestyles. Neturei Karta's international political activism is rooted in its opposition to Israel's existence, which, in turn, is rooted in its members' core religious belief that the Jewish exile is to be maintained until the coming of the Messiah . Initially, World Agudath Israel largely disagreed with the secular orientation of political Zionism , believing that it did not place enough importance on Judaism and thus constituted a threat to Haredi communities globally. However, it eventually reneged to reach an understanding with Zionist aspirations in light of World War II and the Holocaust . The founders of Neturei Karta, Amram Blau and Aharon Katzenelbogen, disagreed with the Aguda's accommodationist stance and broke off from the movement. Members of Neturei Karta believe that Israel's founding was an affront to God because it provided the means for an effectively secular undoing of the Jewish exile, while also being a Jewish state that does not absolutely govern by religious law . The organization believes that the Jewish people may only be restored to the Land of Israel by the Messiah, who will bring about the resurrection of the dead , the ingathering of the exiles , and a complete return to Torah law . As such, it does not recognize Israel and has pursued relationships with entities seeking to destroy Israel . With regard to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , Neturei Karta endorses a form of the one-state solution in which the Palestinian people control the combined territory of Israel and the State of Palestine . The views of Neturei Karta's members are considered fringe, even within Haredi Jewish circles. On numerous occasions, a number of anti-Zionist Orthodox Jewish movements have denounced Neturei Karta for its pursuit of relationships with the Iranian government , neo-Nazis , and Holocaust deniers , particularly after Neturei Karta members attended the 2006 International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust , which was condemned by the United Nations and much of the international community. ^ \"Neturei Karta Leader Moshe Ber Beck Dies In Monsey\" . The Yeshiva World . 16 April 2021 . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ Sources describing the group as fringe: Zamaret, Zvi (Fall 1999). \"Judaism in Israel: Ben-Gurion's Private Beliefs and Public Policy\" . Israel Studies . 4 (2): 78. JSTOR 30245511 . Retrieved 9 October 2023 . yet a few years later, women's suffrage was accepted by the entire Orthodox community (excluding Neturei Karata and similar fringe groups) \"Israeli Anti-Zionist Sentenced for Spying for Iran\" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . The Forward . 28 January 2014 . Retrieved 9 October 2023 . Members of Neturei Karta, a fringe ultra-Orthodox sect in Israel, join a pro-Palestinian protest. Sterman, Adiv (28 January 2014). \"Ultra-Orthodox 'Iran spy' sentenced to 4.5 years\" . Times of Israel . Retrieved 9 October 2023 . Yitzhak Bergel, a member of the anti-Zionist fringe group Neturei Karta, confessed to initiating contact with Iranian officials Goldman, Mordechai (2 November 2015). \"Why these ultra-Orthodox Jews support the Palestinian cause\" . Al-Monitor . Retrieved 9 October 2023 . A member of Neturei Karta, a fringe ultra-Orthodox Jewish movement within the anti-Zionist bloc, carries Palestinian flags during a rally marking the 10th anniversary of the death of late Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, in the West Bank city of Ramallah",
   "lead_after": "Haredi Jewish anti-Zionist organization Neturei Karta ( Aramaic : נָטוֹרֵי קַרְתָּא , romanized: Nāṭōrē Qartāʾ , lit. ' Guardians of the City ' ) is a Jewish anti-Zionist organization that was founded in Jerusalem in 1938 and is primarily active in parts of Israel and the Western world . It was established by Haredi Jews originally affiliated with World Agudath Israel , which represented the most devout members of the Haredi community of the Old Yishuv . The organization's members, who adhere to stringent interpretations of Jewish religious law , are known for their religious conservatism and insular lifestyles. Neturei Karta's international political activism is rooted in its opposition to Israel's existence, which, in turn, is rooted in its members' core religious belief that the Jewish exile is to be maintained until the coming of the Messiah . Initially, World Agudath Israel largely disagreed with the secular orientation of political Zionism , believing that it did not place enough importance on Judaism and thus constituted a threat to Haredi communities globally. However, it eventually reneged to reach an understanding with Zionist aspirations in light of World War II and the Holocaust . The founders of Neturei Karta, Amram Blau and Aharon Katzenelbogen, disagreed with the Aguda's accommodationist stance and broke off from the movement. Members of Neturei Karta believe that Israel's founding was an affront to God because it provided the means for an effectively secular undoing of the Jewish exile, while also being a Jewish state that does not absolutely govern by religious law . The organization believes that the Jewish people may only be restored to the Land of Israel by the Messiah, who will bring about the resurrection of the dead , the ingathering of the exiles , and a complete return to Torah law . As such, it does not recognize Israel and has pursued relationships with entities seeking to destroy Israel . With regard to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict , Neturei Karta endorses a form of the one-state solution in which the Palestinian people control the combined territory of Israel and the State of Palestine . The views of Neturei Karta's members are considered fringe, even within Haredi Jewish circles. On numerous occasions, a number of anti-Zionist Orthodox Jewish movements have denounced Neturei Karta for its pursuit of relationships with the Iranian government , neo-Nazis , and Holocaust deniers , particularly after Neturei Karta members attended the 2006 International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust , which was condemned by the United Nations and much of the international community. ^ \"Neturei Karta Leader Moshe Ber Beck Dies In Monsey\" . The Yeshiva World . 16 April 2021 . Retrieved 16 April 2021 . ^ Sources describing the group as fringe: Zamaret, Zvi (Fall 1999). \"Judaism in Israel: Ben-Gurion's Private Beliefs and Public Policy\" . Israel Studies . 4 (2): 78. JSTOR 30245511 . Retrieved 9 October 2023 . yet a few years later, women's suffrage was accepted by the entire Orthodox community (excluding Neturei Karata and similar fringe groups) \"Israeli Anti-Zionist Sentenced for Spying for Iran\" . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . The Forward . 28 January 2014 . Retrieved 9 October 2023 . Members of Neturei Karta, a fringe ultra-Orthodox sect in Israel, join a pro-Palestinian protest. Sterman, Adiv (28 January 2014). \"Ultra-Orthodox 'Iran spy' sentenced to 4.5 years\" . Times of Israel . Retrieved 9 October 2023 . Yitzhak Bergel, a member of the anti-Zionist fringe group Neturei Karta, confessed to initiating contact with Iranian officials Goldman, Mordechai (2 November 2015). \"Why these ultra-Orthodox Jews support the Palestinian cause\" . Al-Monitor . Retrieved 9 October 2023 . A member of Neturei Karta, a fringe ultra-Orthodox Jewish movement within the anti-Zionist bloc, carries Palestinian flags during a rally marking the 10th anniversary of the death of late Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, in the West Bank city of Ramallah"
  },
  {
   "title": "Battle of Khaybar",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Khaybar&oldid=1360818205",
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   "lead_before": "628 military campaign in the early Muslim period For other uses, see Khaybar (disambiguation) . Belligerents First Islamic State Khaybar Jews Banu Nadir Banu Ghatafan Banu Fazara Commanders and leaders Muhammad Ali ibn Abi Talib Umar ibn al-Khattab Abu Bakr Zubayr ibn al-Awwam Marhab ibn al-Harith † Strength 1,400 – 1,600 10,000 (Jews) 4,000 (Ghatafan) Casualties and losses ~20 killed 50 wounded 93 killed The Battle of Khaybar ( Arabic : غزوة خيبر , romanized : Ghazwatu Khaybar ) was an armed confrontation between the early Muslims and the Jewish community of Khaybar in 628 CE. Khaybar , which is located approximately 150 kilometres (93 mi) to the northwest of Medina , was home to a sizable community of Jewish tribes . As Muhammad's army began to march on Khaybar, the Banu Ghatafan and other Jewish-allied Arabian tribes did not, or could not, send the reinforcements that had been expected to arrive to defend the settlement, further endangering the Jewish army's poor fortifications. After a brief period of fighting, Khaybar fell to the Muslims and the Jewish commander Marhab ibn al-Harith was killed, reportedly by Ali ibn Abi Talib . The terms of surrender presented to the oasis after the Muslim conquest stipulated the seizure of the Jews' wealth and also called for every non-Muslim to pay tribute ( jizya ) to the Muslims in exchange for universal conflict neutrality with protection or emigrate from Khaybar, bolstering the Muslim army in a significant development for Muhammad's military career . In exchange for their acceptance of the terms, the Muslims agreed to cease their campaign against Banu Qurayza and other local tribes. Despite forces consisting of 10–20,000 Jews vs 1,400 Muslims, deaths were remarkably low at 93 Jews and 18 Muslims, with 50 injured between parties. Since the late 20th century, Muhammad's conquest of Khaybar's Jewish community has become notable as the subject of an Arabic-language rallying slogan (\" Khaybar, Khaybar, ya Yahud! \"), in the context of the Arab–Israeli conflict . ^ \"خيبر - غزوة خيبر - قصة المدينة - د. راغب السرجاني | موقع قصة الإسلام - إشراف د/ راغب السرجاني\" . www.islamstory.com . Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. ^ Lings (1983), p. 264. ^ Lings (1983), p. 255-6. ^ Watt, Encyclopaedia of Islam , \"Kurayza, Banu\". ^ Cite error: The named reference ReferenceA was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Manifestations of The Moon of Prophet Hood | PDF\" . Scribd . Retrieved 1 October 2024 . ^ Bartal, Shaul (2021), \"Ḥamās: The Islamic Resistance Movement\" , in Upal, Muhammad Afzal; Cusack, Carole M. (eds.), Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements , Brill, p. 381, ISBN 978-90-04-42525-5 , JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbv8.23 ^ Lawrence Rose, Paul (2014). \"Muhammad, the Jews, and Khaybar: Fantasy and Emotion in Contemporary Islamic Political and Religious Antisemitism\" (PDF) . In Asher Small, Charles (ed.). Global Antisemitism: A Crisis of Modernity Volume IV: Islamism and the Arab World . ISGAP . p. 106. ^ Litvak, Meir (1998). \"The Islamization of the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict: The Case of Hamas\" . Middle Eastern Studies . 34 (1): 157. doi : 10.1080/00263209808701214 . ISSN 0026-3206 . JSTOR 4283922 . ^ Shrentzel, Israel (2018). \"Verses and Reality: What the Koran Really Says about Jews\" . Jewish Political Studies Review . 29 (3/4): 27. ISSN 0792-335X . JSTOR 26500684 .",
   "lead_after": "628 military campaign in the early Muslim period For other uses, see Khaybar (disambiguation) . Belligerents First Islamic State Khaybar Jews Banu Nadir Banu Ghatafan Banu Fazara Commanders and leaders Muhammad Ali ibn Abi Talib Umar ibn al-Khattab Abu Bakr Zubayr ibn al-Awwam Marhab ibn al-Harith † Strength 1,400 – 1,600 10,000 (Jews) 4,000 (Ghatafan) Casualties and losses ~20 killed 50 wounded 93 killed The Battle of Khaybar ( Arabic : غزوة خيبر , romanized : Ghazwatu Khaybar ) was an armed confrontation between the early Muslims and the Jewish community of Khaybar in 628 CE. Khaybar , which is located approximately 150 kilometres (93 mi) to the northwest of Medina , was home to a sizable community of Jewish tribes . As Muhammad's army began to march on Khaybar, the Banu Ghatafan and other Jewish-allied Arabian tribes did not, or could not, send the reinforcements that had been expected to arrive to defend the settlement, further endangering the Jewish army's poor fortifications. After a brief period of fighting, Khaybar fell to the Muslims and the Jewish commander Marhab ibn al-Harith was killed, reportedly by Ali ibn Abi Talib . The terms of surrender presented to the oasis after the Muslim conquest stipulated the seizure of the Jews' wealth and also called for every non-Muslim to pay tribute ( jizya ) to the Muslims in exchange for universal conflict neutrality with protection or emigrate from Khaybar, bolstering the Muslim army in a significant development for Muhammad's military career . In exchange for their acceptance of the terms, the Muslims agreed to cease their campaign against Banu Qurayza and other local tribes. Despite forces consisting of 10–20,000 Jews vs 1,400 Muslims, deaths were remarkably low at 93 Jews and 18 Muslims, with 50 injured between parties. Since the late 20th century, Muhammad's conquest of Khaybar's Jewish community has become notable as the subject of an Arabic-language rallying slogan (\" Khaybar, Khaybar, ya Yahud! \"), in the context of the Arab–Israeli conflict . ^ \"خيبر - غزوة خيبر - قصة المدينة - د. راغب السرجاني | موقع قصة الإسلام - إشراف د/ راغب السرجاني\" . www.islamstory.com . Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. ^ Lings (1983), p. 264. ^ Lings (1983), p. 255-6. ^ Watt, Encyclopaedia of Islam , \"Kurayza, Banu\". ^ Cite error: The named reference ReferenceA was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Manifestations of The Moon of Prophet Hood | PDF\" . Scribd . Retrieved 1 October 2024 . ^ Bartal, Shaul (2021), \"Ḥamās: The Islamic Resistance Movement\" , in Upal, Muhammad Afzal; Cusack, Carole M. (eds.), Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements , Brill, p. 381, ISBN 978-90-04-42525-5 , JSTOR 10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbv8.23 ^ Lawrence Rose, Paul (2014). \"Muhammad, the Jews, and Khaybar: Fantasy and Emotion in Contemporary Islamic Political and Religious Antisemitism\" (PDF) . In Asher Small, Charles (ed.). Global Antisemitism: A Crisis of Modernity Volume IV: Islamism and the Arab World . ISGAP . p. 106. ^ Litvak, Meir (1998). \"The Islamization of the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict: The Case of Hamas\" . Middle Eastern Studies . 34 (1): 157. doi : 10.1080/00263209808701214 . ISSN 0026-3206 . JSTOR 4283922 . ^ Shrentzel, Israel (2018). \"Verses and Reality: What the Koran Really Says about Jews\" . Jewish Political Studies Review . 29 (3/4): 27. ISSN 0792-335X . JSTOR 26500684 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "2014 Gaza War",
   "pageid": 43243199,
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   "revid_after": 1366301259,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-27T06:36:31Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2014_Gaza_War&oldid=1360713160",
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   "lead_before": "Armed conflict in the Gaza Strip For other conflicts called the \"Gaza War\", see Gaza War (2008–2009) , 2012 Gaza War , and Gaza war . Belligerents Israel Gaza Strip Hamas Palestinian Islamic Jihad Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine Popular Resistance Committees Abdullah Azzam Brigades Jaysh al-Ummah Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Commanders and leaders Benjamin Netanyahu ( Prime Minister ) Moshe Ya'alon ( Defense Minister ) Benny Gantz ( Chief of General Staff ) Amir Eshel ( Air Force Commander ) Ram Rothberg ( Naval Commander ) Sami Turgeman ( Southern Commander ) Mickey Edelstein ( Gaza Division ) Yoram Cohen ( Chief of Shin Bet ) Khaled Mashal (Leader of Hamas) Ismail Haniyeh (Deputy Chief of Hamas) Mohammed Deif (Head of Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades ) Ramadan Shalah (Leader of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad) Units involved Israel Defense Forces Shin Bet Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Abu Ali Mustafa Brigades Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades Al-Quds Brigades Strength 176,500 active personnel 565,000 reservists (2012 figures, of which not all are directly involved) Al-Qassam Brigades : 20,000 –40,000 Al-Quds Brigades : 8,000 Casualties and losses 67 soldiers killed 469 soldiers wounded 2 soldiers captured 6 civilians (1 Thai ) killed 87 civilians wounded Gaza Health Ministry : 2,310 killed (70% civilians ), 10,626 wounded UN HRC : 2,251 killed (65% civilians ) B'Tselem : 2,203 killed (64% civilians ) Israeli government : 2,125 killed (44% combatants ) PCHR : 2,216 killed (69% civilians ) More than 23 Palestinians executed by Hamas or Al‑Qassam for alleged espionage. The 2014 Gaza War , also known as Operation Protective Edge ( Hebrew : מִבְצָע צוּק אֵיתָן , romanized : Miv'tza Tzuk Eitan , lit. ' Operation Strong Cliff ' ), and Battle of the Withered Grain ( Arabic : معركة العصف المأكول , romanized : Maʿrakat al-ʿAṣf al-Maʾkūl ), was a military operation launched by Israel on 8 July 2014 in the Gaza Strip , a Palestinian territory governed by Hamas since 2007 and which was occupied by Israel since 1967 until its disengagement in 2005 . Following the kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers in the West Bank by Palestinian militants, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) initiated Operation Brother's Keeper , in which it killed 10 Palestinians, injured 130 and imprisoned more than 600. Hamas reportedly did not retaliate but resumed rocket attacks on Israel more than two weeks later, following the killing of one of its militants by an Israeli airstrike on 29 June. This escalation triggered a seven-week-long conflict between the two sides, one of the deadliest outbreaks of open conflict between Israel and the Palestinians in decades. The war resulted in over two thousand deaths, the vast majority of which were Gazan Palestinian civilians. This includes a total of six Israeli civilians who were killed as a result of the conflict. The Israeli military operation aimed to stop rocket fire into Israel from the Gaza Strip. Conversely, Hamas' attacks aimed to bring international pressure onto Israel with the strategic goal of forcing the latter to lift the naval and air blockade of the Gaza Strip ; among its other goals were to end Israel's attacks on Palestinians, obtain a third party to monitor and guarantee compliance with a ceasefire, release Palestinian political prisoners and overcome its isolation. According to the BBC , Israel launched airstrikes on the Gaza Strip in retaliation to the rocket attacks by Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ), and other Palestinian militant groups . On 7 July, after seven Hamas militants died in a tunnel explosion in Khan Yunis that was caused either by an Israeli airstrike (per Hamas, Nathan Thrall , BBC , and a senior IDF official) or an accidental explosion of their own munitions (per the IDF), Hamas assumed responsibility for rockets fired into Israel, and subsequently launched 40 more rockets towards Israel. The Israeli aerial operation officially began the following day, and on 17 July, it was expanded to include a full-scale ground invasion of the Gaza Strip with the stated aim of destroying Gaza's tunnel system ; the Israeli ground invasion ended on 5 August. On 26 August, an open-ended ceasefire was announced. By this time, the IDF reported that Hamas, PIJ, and other Palestinian militant groups had fired 4,564 rockets and mortars into Israel, with over 735 projectiles having been intercepted mid-flight and shot down by Israel's Iron Dome . Most Gazan mortar and rocket fire was inaccurate, and consequently hit open land; more than 280 projectiles had landed within the Gaza Strip, and 224 had struck residential areas. Palestinian rocketry also killed 13 Palestinian civilians in Gaza, 11 of them children. The IDF attacked 5,263 targets in the Gaza Strip; at least 34 known tunnels were destroyed and two-thirds of Hamas's 10,000-rocket arsenal was either used up or destroyed. Between 2,125 and 2,310 Gazans were killed during the conflict while between 10,626 and 10,895 were wounded (including 3,374 children, of whom over 1,000 were left permanently disabled). Gazan civilian casualty estimates range between 70 percent by the Gaza Health Ministry , 65 percent by the United Nations ' (UN) Protection Cluster by OCHA (based in part on Gaza Health Ministry reports), and 36 percent by Israeli officials. The UN estimated that more than 7,000 homes for 10,000 families were razed, together with an additional 89,000 homes damaged, of which roughly 10,000 were severely affected by the bombing. Rebuilding costs were calculated to run from US$ 4–6 billion over the course of 20 years. 67 Israeli soldiers, 5 Israeli civilians (including one child) and one Thai civilian were killed while 469 Israeli soldiers and 261 Israeli civilians were injured. On the Israeli side, the economic impact of the operation is estimated to have had an impact of ₪ 8.5 billion (approximately US$2.5 billion) and a GDP loss of 0.4 percent . ^ \"Abu Jamal: Palestinian resistance continues to confront the occupier with rockets and missiles\" . PFLP. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014 . Retrieved 10 August 2014 . ^ \" Qassam brigades claim rocket, mortar fire at southern Israel Archived 19 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine \", Ma'an News Agency, Monday 21 July 2014. ^ Ben Solomon, Ariel (11 July 2014). \"Videos show Lebanese jihadi group active in Gaza\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 27 November 2020 . Retrieved 11 July 2014 . ^ \"Jaysh al-Ummah (Gaza)\" . European Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 6 November 2021 . Retrieved 18 June 2021 . ^ Miller, Elhanan (10 July 2014). \"Armed wing linked to Mahmoud Abbas's faction says it shot rockets at Ashkelon, Sderot and elsewhere Wednesday night\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 20 October 2014 . Retrieved 20 October 2014 . ^ Prusher, Ilene (26 August 2014). \"Israel and Palestinians Reach Open-Ended Cease-Fire Deal\" . Time . Archived from the original on 17 November 2020 . Retrieved 5 September 2014 . ^ Daraghmeh, Mohammed; Laub, Karin (26 August 2014). \"Israel-Gaza conflict: Hamas claims 'victory for the resistance' as long-term truce is agreed with Israel\" . The Independent . London. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2014 . ^ \"Netanyahu: Hamas suffered its greatest blow since it was founded\" . The Jerusalem Post . 27 August 2014. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021 . Retrieved 29 April 2022 . ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (7 March 2012). Hackett, James (ed.). The Military Balance 2012 . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-1-85743-642-6 . ^ \"Rockets, naval commandos boost Hamas arsenal\" . Maannews.net. 25 July 2014. Archived from the original on 29 July 2014 . Retrieved 4 August 2014 . ^ \"Hamas growing in military stature, say analysts\" . Middleeasteye.net. 17 July 2014. Archived from the original on 21 July 2014 . Retrieved 4 August 2014 . ^ Ben Gedalyahu, Ben (7 November 2011). \"Iran Backs Islamic Jihad's 8,000-Man Army in Gaza\" . Israel National News . Arutz Sheva. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018 . Retrieved 7 November 2011 . ^ \"Occupied Palestinian Territory: Gaza Emergency\" (PDF) . 4 September 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2014 . Retrieved 4 September 2014 . ^ Cite error: The named reference benari was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Operation Protective Edge, Casualties\" . Archived from the original on 18 November 2020 . Retrieved 28 August 2014 . ^ Cease fire in Operation \"Protective Edge\" is holding MDA sums up 50 days of saving lives Archived 26 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Magen David Adom, 29 August 2014: 'During the 50 days of Operation \"Protective Edge\", MDA teams treated 842 civilians, including 6 who were killed by shrapnel of rockets, and another 36 who were injured by shrapnel in varying degrees, including: 10 casualties in serious condition, 6 in a moderate condition and 20 who were slightly wounded. In addition, MDA teams also treated during Operation \"Protective Edge\" 33 people who were injured by shattered glass and building debris, 18 who were injured in road traffic accidents which occurred when the sirens were heard, including 1 person in a serious condition, and the rest lightly or moderately wounded. 159 people were injured as a result of falling and trauma on the way to the shelters and 581 people suffered anxiety attacks.' ^ Cite error: The named reference OPE-Israeli-wounded was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Raghavan, Sudarsan (22 July 2014). \"Missing Israeli soldier, canceled flights could shift dynamic of Gaza conflict\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 15 October 2014 . ^ 'Ministry: Death toll from Gaza offensive topped 2,310,' Archived 11 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine Ma'an News Agency 3 January 2015. ^ Sterman, Adiv; Berman, Lazar (29 August 2014). \"Islamic Jihad: 121 of our fighters killed in Gaza\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 12 November 2020 . Retrieved 30 September 2014 . ^ \"Report of the detailed findings of the Commission of Inquiry on the 2014 Gaza Conflict\" . Archived from the original on 25 July 2017 . Retrieved 2 June 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference FF was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Annex: Palestinian Fatality Figures in the 2014 Gaza Conflict Archived 22 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine from report The 2014 Gaza Conflict: Factual and Legal Aspects Archived 14 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs , 14 June 2015 ^ Cite error: The named reference AR was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Gaza: Palestinians tortured, summarily killed by Hamas forces during 2014 conflict\" . Amnesty International . 27 May 2015. Archived from the original on 10 October 2023 . Retrieved 29 April 2022 . 'Strangling Necks': Abduction, torture and summary killings of Palestinians by Hamas forces during the 2014 Gaza/Israel conflict highlights a series of abuses, such as the extrajudicial execution of at least 23 Palestinians and the arrest and torture of dozens of others, including members and supporters of Hamas's political rivals, Fatah. ^ Ghert-Zand, Renee (9 July 2014). \"Name 'Protective Edge' doesn't cut it\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 1 October 2020 . Retrieved 18 July 2014 . ^ Kordova, Shoshana (19 July 2014). \"Why is the English name of Operation Protective Edge so different from the Hebrew version?\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 12 May 2015 . Retrieved 27 July 2014 . ^ Hadad, Ofir (4 July 2021). \"A Battle of Names: Hamas and Israeli Operations in the Gaza Strip\" . Terrorism and Political Violence . 33 (5): 941– 942. doi : 10.1080/09546553.2019.1594789 . ISSN 0954-6553 . ^ Booth, William (3 September 2014). \"Here's what really happened in the Gaza war (according to the Israelis)\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 16 September 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2016 . ^ Harel, Amos (8 July 2015). \"The last Gaza war–and the next\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 26 December 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2016 . ^ \"Israel Clears Forces in Several Deadly 2014 Gaza War Cases\" . The New York Times . Associated Press . 24 August 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2016 . ^ ريان, براء نزار. \"فلسطين.. ووهم أسلمة الصراع! =1 December 2023\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 26 February 2024 . Retrieved 3 December 2023 . ^ \"العدوان الإسرائيلي على غزة 2014 =\" . Aljazeera . Archived from the original on 3 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 December 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Maannews1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Nathan Thrall (1 August 2014). \"Hamas's Chances\" . London Review of Books . 36 (16). Archived from the original on 16 April 2019 . Retrieved 3 August 2014 . ^ Jack Khoury, Hamas claims responsibility for three Israeli teens' kidnapping and murder' Archived 10 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine , Haaretz , 21 August 2014. ^ 'Mashal: Hamas was behind murder of three Israeli teens' Archived 16 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine , Ynet , 22 August 2014. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sharon was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Zonszein, Mairav (27 March 2015). \"Israel killed more Palestinians in 2014 than in any other year since 1967\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on 12 April 2022 . Retrieved 3 March 2020 . ^ Armed, Palestinian (26 March 2015) [January 16, 2024]. \"State of Palestine: Unlawful and deadly: Rocket and mortar attacks by Palestinian armed groups during the 2014 Gaza/Israel conflict - Amnesty International\" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2024 . Retrieved 17 January 2024 . ^ \"Citing past failures, Hamas demands an enforceable cease-fire\" . america.aljazeera.com . Archived from the original on 28 January 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 . ^ 'Hamas and Israel cling to their war aims,' Archived 16 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Deutsche Welle 23 July 2014. ^ 'Hamas 'ready for Gaza ceasefire' if Israeli raids stop,' Archived 27 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine BBC News 4 July 2014. ^ Zitun, Yoav (7 July 2014). \"IDF: We uncovered Gaza terror tunnel leading to Israel\" . Yedioth. Ynet. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015 . Retrieved 1 November 2015 . ^ Christa Case Bryant, 'Ending détente, Hamas takes responsibility for today's spike in rocket fire (+video)' Archived 7 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Christian Science Monitor , 7 July 2014: \"After days of steadily increasing strikes, Hamas militants in Gaza launched at least 40 rockets tonight alone in what appears to be a decision to escalate the conflict. The dramatic spike in rocket attacks is likely to put significant pressure on Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to heed calls for an all-out offensive against the Islamist movement, which Israel and the US consider a terrorist organization. While there has been intermittent rocket fire from Gaza since the cease-fire that ended the November 2012 Pillar of Defense conflict, Israel has credited Hamas with largely doing its best to keep the various militant factions in line. Today, however, Hamas took direct responsibility for the fire for the first time, sending a barrage of dozens of rockets into Israel in the worst day of such violence in two years.\" ^ \"Gaza-Israel conflict: Is the fighting over?\" . BBC . 26 August 2014. Archived from the original on 27 August 2014 . Retrieved 28 August 2014 . ^ \"Gaza conflict: Israel and Palestinians agree long-term truce\" . BBC News . 27 August 2014. Archived from the original on 14 April 2019 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference withdrawal2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sherwood, Harriet; Balousha, Hazem (27 August 2014). \"Gaza ceasefire: Israel and Palestinians agree to halt weeks of fighting\" . The Guardian UK . Archived from the original on 13 June 2018 . Retrieved 29 August 2014 . ^ \"IMRA - Wednesday, July 30, 2014 IDF: Over the past 24 hours 36% of rockets fired at Israel fell short\" . www.imra.org.il . Archived from the original on 12 October 2017 . Retrieved 29 April 2022 . ^ \"Up to 25 Percent of Hamas Rockets Fall Short and Kill Gazan Civilians\" . Archived from the original on 14 April 2019 . Retrieved 22 March 2016 . ^ Cite error: The named reference failing_rockets was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Ynetnews (27 August 2014). \"Operation Protective Edge in numbers\" . Ynetnews . Archived from the original on 2 June 2015 . Retrieved 29 April 2022 . ^ Ben-David, Ricky; Rettig Gur, Haviv; Yaakov, Yifa (26 August 2014). \"Egypt says Gaza truce to begin at 7; Israeli killed in mortar strike\" . Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 12 October 2017 . Retrieved 26 August 2014 . ^ 'Palestinian armed groups killed civilians on both sides in attacks amounting to war crimes,' Archived 18 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International 26 March 2015 ^ 'Unlawful and deadly Rocket and mortar attacks by Palestinian armed groups during the 2014 Gaza/Israel conflict,' Archived 2 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International , 26 March 2015. ^ \"Rockets, airstrikes after Gaza war truce collapses\" . The Washington Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 2 September 2014 . ^ \"AP ANALYSIS: Hamas enters talks with Israel on Gaza from a point of military weakness\" . Fox News . 6 August 2014. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 . Retrieved 2 September 2014 . ^ \"Statistics: Victims of the Israeli Offensive on Gaza since 8 July 2014\" . Pchrgaza.org. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015 . Retrieved 27 August 2014 . ^ Operation Protective Edge: A war waged on Gaza's children, Archived 20 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Defence for Children International-Palestine , Ramallah, 16 April 2015. ^ \"Examination of the names of Palestinians killed in Operation Protective Edge – Part Ten*\" (PDF) . Israeli Intelligence & Heritage Commemoration Center. 19 February 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2015 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 . ^ 'UN doubles estimate of destroyed Gaza homes,' Archived 30 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine Ynet 19 December 2015. ^ 'Housing group: 20 years to rebuild Gaza after fighting with Israel' Archived 4 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Haaretz 30 August 2014. ^ Israeli child 'killed by rocket fired from Gaza' , BBC ^ Cite error: The named reference IsraelLoss was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Armed conflict in the Gaza Strip For other conflicts called the \"Gaza War\", see Gaza War (2008–2009) , 2012 Gaza War , and Gaza war . Belligerents Israel Gaza Strip Hamas Palestinian Islamic Jihad Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine Popular Resistance Committees Abdullah Azzam Brigades Jaysh al-Ummah Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Commanders and leaders Benjamin Netanyahu ( Prime Minister ) Moshe Ya'alon ( Defense Minister ) Benny Gantz ( Chief of General Staff ) Amir Eshel ( Air Force Commander ) Ram Rothberg ( Naval Commander ) Sami Turgeman ( Southern Commander ) Mickey Edelstein ( Gaza Division ) Yoram Cohen ( Chief of Shin Bet ) Khaled Mashal (Leader of Hamas) Ismail Haniyeh (Deputy Chief of Hamas) Mohammed Deif (Head of Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades ) Ramadan Shalah (Leader of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad) Units involved Israel Defense Forces Shin Bet Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades Abu Ali Mustafa Brigades Al-Nasser Salah al-Deen Brigades Al-Quds Brigades Strength 176,500 active personnel 565,000 reservists (2012 figures, of which not all are directly involved) Al-Qassam Brigades : 20,000 –40,000 Al-Quds Brigades : 8,000 Casualties and losses 67 soldiers killed 469 soldiers wounded 2 soldiers captured 6 civilians (1 Thai ) killed 87 civilians wounded Gaza Health Ministry : 2,310 killed (70% civilians ), 10,626 wounded UN HRC : 2,251 killed (65% civilians ) B'Tselem : 2,203 killed (64% civilians ) Israeli government : 2,125 killed (44% combatants ) PCHR : 2,216 killed (69% civilians ) More than 23 Palestinians executed by Hamas or Al‑Qassam for alleged espionage. The 2014 Gaza War , also known as Operation Protective Edge ( Hebrew : מִבְצָע צוּק אֵיתָן , romanized : Miv'tza Tzuk Eitan , lit. ' Operation Strong Cliff ' ), and Battle of the Withered Grain ( Arabic : معركة العصف المأكول , romanized : Maʿrakat al-ʿAṣf al-Maʾkūl ), was a military operation launched by Israel on 8 July 2014 in the Gaza Strip , a Palestinian territory governed by Hamas since 2007 and which was occupied by Israel since 1967 until its disengagement in 2005 . Following the kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers in the West Bank by Palestinian militants, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) initiated Operation Brother's Keeper , in which it killed 10 Palestinians, injured 130 and imprisoned more than 600. Hamas reportedly did not retaliate but resumed rocket attacks on Israel more than two weeks later, following the killing of one of its militants by an Israeli airstrike on 29 June. This escalation triggered a seven-week-long conflict between the two sides, one of the deadliest outbreaks of open conflict between Israel and the Palestinians in decades. The war resulted in over two thousand deaths, the vast majority of which were Gazan Palestinian civilians. This includes a total of six Israeli civilians who were killed as a result of the conflict. The Israeli military operation aimed to stop rocket fire into Israel from the Gaza Strip. Conversely, Hamas' attacks aimed to bring international pressure onto Israel with the strategic goal of forcing the latter to lift the naval and air blockade of the Gaza Strip ; among its other goals were to end Israel's attacks on Palestinians, obtain a third party to monitor and guarantee compliance with a ceasefire, release Palestinian political prisoners and overcome its isolation. According to the BBC , Israel launched airstrikes on the Gaza Strip in retaliation to the rocket attacks by Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ), and other Palestinian militant groups . On 7 July, after seven Hamas militants died in a tunnel explosion in Khan Yunis that was caused either by an Israeli airstrike (per Hamas, Nathan Thrall , BBC , and a senior IDF official) or an accidental explosion of their own munitions (per the IDF), Hamas assumed responsibility for rockets fired into Israel, and subsequently launched 40 more rockets towards Israel. The Israeli aerial operation officially began the following day, and on 17 July, it was expanded to include a full-scale ground invasion of the Gaza Strip with the stated aim of destroying Gaza's tunnel system ; the Israeli ground invasion ended on 5 August. On 26 August, an open-ended ceasefire was announced. By this time, the IDF reported that Hamas, PIJ, and other Palestinian militant groups had fired 4,564 rockets and mortars into Israel, with over 735 projectiles having been intercepted mid-flight and shot down by Israel's Iron Dome . Most Gazan mortar and rocket fire was inaccurate, and consequently hit open land; more than 280 projectiles had landed within the Gaza Strip, and 224 had struck residential areas. Palestinian rocketry also killed 13 Palestinian civilians in Gaza, 11 of them children. The IDF attacked 5,263 targets in the Gaza Strip; at least 34 known tunnels were destroyed and two-thirds of Hamas's 10,000-rocket arsenal was either used up or destroyed. Between 2,125 and 2,310 Gazans were killed during the conflict while between 10,626 and 10,895 were wounded (including 3,374 children, of whom over 1,000 were left permanently disabled). Gazan civilian casualty estimates range between 70 percent by the Gaza Health Ministry , 65 percent by the United Nations ' (UN) Protection Cluster by OCHA (based in part on Gaza Health Ministry reports), and 36 percent by Israeli officials. The UN estimated that more than 7,000 homes for 10,000 families were razed, together with an additional 89,000 homes damaged, of which roughly 10,000 were severely affected by the bombing. Rebuilding costs were calculated to run from US$ 4–6 billion over the course of 20 years. 67 Israeli soldiers, 5 Israeli civilians (including one child) and one Thai civilian were killed while 469 Israeli soldiers and 261 Israeli civilians were injured. On the Israeli side, the economic impact of the operation is estimated to have had an impact of ₪ 8.5 billion (approximately US$2.5 billion) and a GDP loss of 0.4 percent . ^ \"Abu Jamal: Palestinian resistance continues to confront the occupier with rockets and missiles\" . PFLP. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014 . Retrieved 10 August 2014 . ^ \" Qassam brigades claim rocket, mortar fire at southern Israel Archived 19 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine \", Ma'an News Agency, Monday 21 July 2014. ^ Ben Solomon, Ariel (11 July 2014). \"Videos show Lebanese jihadi group active in Gaza\" . The Jerusalem Post . Archived from the original on 27 November 2020 . Retrieved 11 July 2014 . ^ \"Jaysh al-Ummah (Gaza)\" . European Council on Foreign Relations . Archived from the original on 6 November 2021 . Retrieved 18 June 2021 . ^ Miller, Elhanan (10 July 2014). \"Armed wing linked to Mahmoud Abbas's faction says it shot rockets at Ashkelon, Sderot and elsewhere Wednesday night\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 20 October 2014 . Retrieved 20 October 2014 . ^ Prusher, Ilene (26 August 2014). \"Israel and Palestinians Reach Open-Ended Cease-Fire Deal\" . Time . Archived from the original on 17 November 2020 . Retrieved 5 September 2014 . ^ Daraghmeh, Mohammed; Laub, Karin (26 August 2014). \"Israel-Gaza conflict: Hamas claims 'victory for the resistance' as long-term truce is agreed with Israel\" . The Independent . London. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 . Retrieved 30 September 2014 . ^ \"Netanyahu: Hamas suffered its greatest blow since it was founded\" . The Jerusalem Post . 27 August 2014. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021 . Retrieved 29 April 2022 . ^ International Institute for Strategic Studies (7 March 2012). Hackett, James (ed.). The Military Balance 2012 . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-1-85743-642-6 . ^ \"Rockets, naval commandos boost Hamas arsenal\" . Maannews.net. 25 July 2014. Archived from the original on 29 July 2014 . Retrieved 4 August 2014 . ^ \"Hamas growing in military stature, say analysts\" . Middleeasteye.net. 17 July 2014. Archived from the original on 21 July 2014 . Retrieved 4 August 2014 . ^ Ben Gedalyahu, Ben (7 November 2011). \"Iran Backs Islamic Jihad's 8,000-Man Army in Gaza\" . Israel National News . Arutz Sheva. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018 . Retrieved 7 November 2011 . ^ \"Occupied Palestinian Territory: Gaza Emergency\" (PDF) . 4 September 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2014 . Retrieved 4 September 2014 . ^ Cite error: The named reference benari was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Operation Protective Edge, Casualties\" . Archived from the original on 18 November 2020 . Retrieved 28 August 2014 . ^ Cease fire in Operation \"Protective Edge\" is holding MDA sums up 50 days of saving lives Archived 26 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Magen David Adom, 29 August 2014: 'During the 50 days of Operation \"Protective Edge\", MDA teams treated 842 civilians, including 6 who were killed by shrapnel of rockets, and another 36 who were injured by shrapnel in varying degrees, including: 10 casualties in serious condition, 6 in a moderate condition and 20 who were slightly wounded. In addition, MDA teams also treated during Operation \"Protective Edge\" 33 people who were injured by shattered glass and building debris, 18 who were injured in road traffic accidents which occurred when the sirens were heard, including 1 person in a serious condition, and the rest lightly or moderately wounded. 159 people were injured as a result of falling and trauma on the way to the shelters and 581 people suffered anxiety attacks.' ^ Cite error: The named reference OPE-Israeli-wounded was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Raghavan, Sudarsan (22 July 2014). \"Missing Israeli soldier, canceled flights could shift dynamic of Gaza conflict\" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 15 October 2014 . ^ 'Ministry: Death toll from Gaza offensive topped 2,310,' Archived 11 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine Ma'an News Agency 3 January 2015. ^ Sterman, Adiv; Berman, Lazar (29 August 2014). \"Islamic Jihad: 121 of our fighters killed in Gaza\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 12 November 2020 . Retrieved 30 September 2014 . ^ \"Report of the detailed findings of the Commission of Inquiry on the 2014 Gaza Conflict\" . Archived from the original on 25 July 2017 . Retrieved 2 June 2024 . ^ Cite error: The named reference FF was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Annex: Palestinian Fatality Figures in the 2014 Gaza Conflict Archived 22 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine from report The 2014 Gaza Conflict: Factual and Legal Aspects Archived 14 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs , 14 June 2015 ^ Cite error: The named reference AR was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Gaza: Palestinians tortured, summarily killed by Hamas forces during 2014 conflict\" . Amnesty International . 27 May 2015. Archived from the original on 10 October 2023 . Retrieved 29 April 2022 . 'Strangling Necks': Abduction, torture and summary killings of Palestinians by Hamas forces during the 2014 Gaza/Israel conflict highlights a series of abuses, such as the extrajudicial execution of at least 23 Palestinians and the arrest and torture of dozens of others, including members and supporters of Hamas's political rivals, Fatah. ^ Ghert-Zand, Renee (9 July 2014). \"Name 'Protective Edge' doesn't cut it\" . The Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 1 October 2020 . Retrieved 18 July 2014 . ^ Kordova, Shoshana (19 July 2014). \"Why is the English name of Operation Protective Edge so different from the Hebrew version?\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 12 May 2015 . Retrieved 27 July 2014 . ^ Hadad, Ofir (4 July 2021). \"A Battle of Names: Hamas and Israeli Operations in the Gaza Strip\" . Terrorism and Political Violence . 33 (5): 941– 942. doi : 10.1080/09546553.2019.1594789 . ISSN 0954-6553 . ^ Booth, William (3 September 2014). \"Here's what really happened in the Gaza war (according to the Israelis)\" . The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 16 September 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2016 . ^ Harel, Amos (8 July 2015). \"The last Gaza war–and the next\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 26 December 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2016 . ^ \"Israel Clears Forces in Several Deadly 2014 Gaza War Cases\" . The New York Times . Associated Press . 24 August 2016 . Retrieved 26 August 2016 . ^ ريان, براء نزار. \"فلسطين.. ووهم أسلمة الصراع! =1 December 2023\" . Al Jazeera . Archived from the original on 26 February 2024 . Retrieved 3 December 2023 . ^ \"العدوان الإسرائيلي على غزة 2014 =\" . Aljazeera . Archived from the original on 3 December 2023 . Retrieved 3 December 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Maannews1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Nathan Thrall (1 August 2014). \"Hamas's Chances\" . London Review of Books . 36 (16). Archived from the original on 16 April 2019 . Retrieved 3 August 2014 . ^ Jack Khoury, Hamas claims responsibility for three Israeli teens' kidnapping and murder' Archived 10 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine , Haaretz , 21 August 2014. ^ 'Mashal: Hamas was behind murder of three Israeli teens' Archived 16 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine , Ynet , 22 August 2014. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sharon was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Zonszein, Mairav (27 March 2015). \"Israel killed more Palestinians in 2014 than in any other year since 1967\" . The Guardian . ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived from the original on 12 April 2022 . Retrieved 3 March 2020 . ^ Armed, Palestinian (26 March 2015) [January 16, 2024]. \"State of Palestine: Unlawful and deadly: Rocket and mortar attacks by Palestinian armed groups during the 2014 Gaza/Israel conflict - Amnesty International\" . Archived from the original on 19 January 2024 . Retrieved 17 January 2024 . ^ \"Citing past failures, Hamas demands an enforceable cease-fire\" . america.aljazeera.com . Archived from the original on 28 January 2016 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 . ^ 'Hamas and Israel cling to their war aims,' Archived 16 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Deutsche Welle 23 July 2014. ^ 'Hamas 'ready for Gaza ceasefire' if Israeli raids stop,' Archived 27 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine BBC News 4 July 2014. ^ Zitun, Yoav (7 July 2014). \"IDF: We uncovered Gaza terror tunnel leading to Israel\" . Yedioth. Ynet. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015 . Retrieved 1 November 2015 . ^ Christa Case Bryant, 'Ending détente, Hamas takes responsibility for today's spike in rocket fire (+video)' Archived 7 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine , The Christian Science Monitor , 7 July 2014: \"After days of steadily increasing strikes, Hamas militants in Gaza launched at least 40 rockets tonight alone in what appears to be a decision to escalate the conflict. The dramatic spike in rocket attacks is likely to put significant pressure on Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to heed calls for an all-out offensive against the Islamist movement, which Israel and the US consider a terrorist organization. While there has been intermittent rocket fire from Gaza since the cease-fire that ended the November 2012 Pillar of Defense conflict, Israel has credited Hamas with largely doing its best to keep the various militant factions in line. Today, however, Hamas took direct responsibility for the fire for the first time, sending a barrage of dozens of rockets into Israel in the worst day of such violence in two years.\" ^ \"Gaza-Israel conflict: Is the fighting over?\" . BBC . 26 August 2014. Archived from the original on 27 August 2014 . Retrieved 28 August 2014 . ^ \"Gaza conflict: Israel and Palestinians agree long-term truce\" . BBC News . 27 August 2014. Archived from the original on 14 April 2019 . Retrieved 21 June 2018 . ^ Cite error: The named reference withdrawal2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sherwood, Harriet; Balousha, Hazem (27 August 2014). \"Gaza ceasefire: Israel and Palestinians agree to halt weeks of fighting\" . The Guardian UK . Archived from the original on 13 June 2018 . Retrieved 29 August 2014 . ^ \"IMRA - Wednesday, July 30, 2014 IDF: Over the past 24 hours 36% of rockets fired at Israel fell short\" . www.imra.org.il . Archived from the original on 12 October 2017 . Retrieved 29 April 2022 . ^ \"Up to 25 Percent of Hamas Rockets Fall Short and Kill Gazan Civilians\" . Archived from the original on 14 April 2019 . Retrieved 22 March 2016 . ^ Cite error: The named reference failing_rockets was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Ynetnews (27 August 2014). \"Operation Protective Edge in numbers\" . Ynetnews . Archived from the original on 2 June 2015 . Retrieved 29 April 2022 . ^ Ben-David, Ricky; Rettig Gur, Haviv; Yaakov, Yifa (26 August 2014). \"Egypt says Gaza truce to begin at 7; Israeli killed in mortar strike\" . Times of Israel . Archived from the original on 12 October 2017 . Retrieved 26 August 2014 . ^ 'Palestinian armed groups killed civilians on both sides in attacks amounting to war crimes,' Archived 18 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International 26 March 2015 ^ 'Unlawful and deadly Rocket and mortar attacks by Palestinian armed groups during the 2014 Gaza/Israel conflict,' Archived 2 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Amnesty International , 26 March 2015. ^ \"Rockets, airstrikes after Gaza war truce collapses\" . The Washington Times . Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 . Retrieved 2 September 2014 . ^ \"AP ANALYSIS: Hamas enters talks with Israel on Gaza from a point of military weakness\" . Fox News . 6 August 2014. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015 . Retrieved 2 September 2014 . ^ \"Statistics: Victims of the Israeli Offensive on Gaza since 8 July 2014\" . Pchrgaza.org. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015 . Retrieved 27 August 2014 . ^ Operation Protective Edge: A war waged on Gaza's children, Archived 20 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Defence for Children International-Palestine , Ramallah, 16 April 2015. ^ \"Examination of the names of Palestinians killed in Operation Protective Edge – Part Ten*\" (PDF) . Israeli Intelligence & Heritage Commemoration Center. 19 February 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2015 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 . ^ 'UN doubles estimate of destroyed Gaza homes,' Archived 30 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine Ynet 19 December 2015. ^ 'Housing group: 20 years to rebuild Gaza after fighting with Israel' Archived 4 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine Haaretz 30 August 2014. ^ Israeli child 'killed by rocket fired from Gaza' , BBC ^ Cite error: The named reference IsraelLoss was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Jewish Voice for Peace",
   "pageid": 1204559,
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   "lead_before": "American Jewish anti-Zionist advocacy group Jewish Voice for Peace ( JVP ; Hebrew : קוֹל יְהוּדִי לַשָּׁלוֹם , romanized : Qōl Yəhūḏī la-Ššālōm ) is an American anti-Zionist , pro-Palestinian solidarity, and left-wing advocacy organization. It is critical of Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories , and supports the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) campaign against Israel . The group was formed in 1996, and as of 2024 had grown to over 32,000 active dues-paying members. Its chapters at Columbia and George Washington universities were suspended in 2024. ^ \"Announcing JVP's next Executive Director!\" . Jewish Voice for Peace. March 6, 2020 . Retrieved June 5, 2024 . ^ \"A Jewish Voice For Peace Inc - Nonprofit Explorer\" . ProPublica . May 9, 2013 . Retrieved September 9, 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Tress-2024 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"I Run Jewish Voice for Peace. These Are My Reflections on a Year of Unthinkable Horror\" . Time Magazine. October 8, 2024.",
   "lead_after": "American Jewish anti-Zionist advocacy group Jewish Voice for Peace ( JVP ; Hebrew : קוֹל יְהוּדִי לַשָּׁלוֹם , romanized : Qōl Yəhūḏī la-Ššālōm ) is an American anti-Zionist , pro-Palestinian solidarity, and left-wing advocacy organization. It is critical of Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories , and supports the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) campaign against Israel . The group was formed in 1996, and as of 2024 had grown to over 32,000 active dues-paying members. Its chapters at Columbia and George Washington universities were suspended in 2024. ^ \"Announcing JVP's next Executive Director!\" . Jewish Voice for Peace. March 6, 2020 . Retrieved June 5, 2024 . ^ \"A Jewish Voice For Peace Inc - Nonprofit Explorer\" . ProPublica . May 9, 2013 . Retrieved September 9, 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Tress-2024 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"I Run Jewish Voice for Peace. These Are My Reflections on a Year of Unthinkable Horror\" . Time Magazine. October 8, 2024."
  },
  {
   "title": "Norman Finkelstein",
   "pageid": 18938099,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-27T06:35:06Z",
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   "lead_before": "American political scientist (born 1953) For the American poet, see Norman Finkelstein (poet) . For the American author and educator, see Norman H. Finkelstein . Norman Gary Finkelstein ( / ˈ f ɪ ŋ k əl s t iː n / FING -kəl-steen ; born December 8, 1953) is an American political scientist and activist . His primary fields of research are the politics of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Finkelstein was born in New York City to Jewish Holocaust-survivor parents. He is a graduate of Binghamton University and received his Ph.D. in political science from Princeton University . He has held faculty positions at Brooklyn College , Rutgers University , Hunter College , New York University , and DePaul University , where he was an assistant professor from 2001 to 2007. In 2006, the department and college committees at DePaul University voted to grant Finkelstein tenure . For undisclosed reasons the university administration did not tenure him, and he announced his resignation after coming to a settlement with the university. Finkelstein rose to prominence in 2000 after publishing The Holocaust Industry , a book in which he writes that the memory of the Holocaust is exploited as an ideological weapon to provide Israel a degree of immunity from criticism. He is a critic of Israeli policy and its governing class. The Israeli government barred him from entry to the country for ten years in 2008. Finkelstein has called Israel the \"Jewish supremacist state\", and views it as committing the crime of apartheid against the Palestinian people . Through personal accounts in one of his books, he compares the plight of the Palestinians living under Israeli occupation with the horrors of the Nazis . Finkelstein's most recent book on Palestine and Israel, published in 2018, is Gaza: An Inquest into Its Martyrdom . ^ \"Illinois: Resignation in Jewish Dispute\" . The New York Times . Associated Press. September 6, 2007 . Retrieved August 9, 2020 . ^ \"Joint statement of Norman Finkelstein and DePaul University on their tenure controversy and its resolution\" . DePaul University. September 5, 2007. Archived from the original on January 15, 2015. ^ Cite error: The named reference NFHI was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Friel 2013 , p. 179. ^ Cite error: The named reference nfmw was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference hiltermann was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "American political scientist (born 1953) For the American poet, see Norman Finkelstein (poet) . For the American author and educator, see Norman H. Finkelstein . Norman Gary Finkelstein ( / ˈ f ɪ ŋ k əl s t iː n / FING -kəl-steen ; born December 8, 1953) is an American political scientist and activist . His primary fields of research are the politics of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict . Finkelstein was born in New York City to Jewish Holocaust-survivor parents. He is a graduate of Binghamton University and received his Ph.D. in political science from Princeton University . He has held faculty positions at Brooklyn College , Rutgers University , Hunter College , New York University , and DePaul University , where he was an assistant professor from 2001 to 2007. In 2006, the department and college committees at DePaul University voted to grant Finkelstein tenure . For undisclosed reasons the university administration did not tenure him, and he announced his resignation after coming to a settlement with the university. Finkelstein rose to prominence in 2000 after publishing The Holocaust Industry , a book in which he writes that the memory of the Holocaust is exploited as an ideological weapon to provide Israel a degree of immunity from criticism. He is a critic of Israeli policy and its governing class. The Israeli government barred him from entry to the country for ten years in 2008. Finkelstein has called Israel the \" Jewish supremacist state\", and views it as committing the crime of apartheid against the Palestinian people . Through personal accounts in one of his books, he compares the plight of the Palestinians living under Israeli occupation with the horrors of the Nazis . Finkelstein's most recent book on Palestine and Israel, published in 2018, is Gaza: An Inquest into Its Martyrdom . ^ \"Illinois: Resignation in Jewish Dispute\" . The New York Times . Associated Press. September 6, 2007 . Retrieved August 9, 2020 . ^ \"Joint statement of Norman Finkelstein and DePaul University on their tenure controversy and its resolution\" . DePaul University. September 5, 2007. Archived from the original on January 15, 2015. ^ Cite error: The named reference NFHI was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Friel 2013 , p. 179. ^ Cite error: The named reference nfmw was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference hiltermann was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "George Habash",
   "pageid": 430428,
   "revid_before": 1357116065,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-27T18:12:31Z",
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   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Habash&oldid=1366381576",
   "lead_before": "Founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (1926–2008) George Habash (1 August 1926 – 26 January 2008) was a Palestinian politician and physician who was the founder and first general-secretary of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) from 1967 to 2000. Habash was born in Lydda , Mandatory Palestine , in 1926. In 1948, while he was a medical student at the American University of Beirut , he returned to his hometown of Lydda during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . The city's Arab Palestinian population, including his family, was forcibly driven out in an event known as the Lydda Death March , which led to the death of his sister. In 1951, after graduating first in his class from medical school, Habash worked in Palestinian refugee camps in Jordan and ran a clinic in Amman . He later relocated to Syria and Lebanon. In 1967, after being sidelined in the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) by Yasser Arafat , he founded the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, a Marxist–Leninist group opposing the existence of Israel and advocating for a one-state solution in the entire region . In the 1970 Dawson's Field hijackings , Habash masterminded the hijackings of four Western airliners to Jordan, which led to the Black September conflict and his subsequent exile to Lebanon. Habash remained opposed to a two-state solution even after the PLO signed the Oslo Peace Accords in 1993. He resigned as secretary-general of the PFLP due to ill health in 2000, dying of a heart attack in 2008. He was also known by his kunya as \" al-Hakim \" ( Arabic : الحكيم , romanized : Al-Ḥakīm , lit. ' The Wise Man ' or ' The Doctor ' ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference bearer was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ ذكرى ميلاد حكيمُ الثورة وضميرُها.. القائد المؤسّس جورج حبش [The Anniversary of the Birth of the Hakim of the Revolution and its Consciousness, the Founding Leader George Habash]. Al-Hadaf (in Arabic). 1 August 2023. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. ^ Cite error: The named reference Khazziha was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Profile: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)\" . BBC News . 18 November 2014 . Retrieved 4 April 2025 . ^ Hirst, David (27 January 2008). \"George Habash\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 27 June 2024 . ^ \"George Habash: A Profile From the Archives\" . Jadaliyya جدلية . ^ Cite error: The named reference t20090128 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (1926–2008) George Habash (1 August 1926 – 26 January 2008) was a Palestinian politician and physician who was the founder and first general-secretary of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) from 1967 to 2000. Habash was born in Lydda , Mandatory Palestine , in 1926. In 1948, while he was a medical student at the American University of Beirut , he returned to his hometown of Lydda during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . The city's Arab Palestinian population, including his family, was forcibly driven out in an event known as the Lydda Death March , which led to the death of his sister. In 1951, after graduating first in his class from medical school, Habash worked in Palestinian refugee camps in Jordan and ran a clinic in Amman . He later relocated to Syria and Lebanon. In 1967, after being sidelined in the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) by Yasser Arafat , he founded the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, a Marxist–Leninist group opposing the existence of Israel and advocating for a one-state solution in the entire region . In the 1970 Dawson's Field hijackings , Habash masterminded the hijackings of four Western airliners to Jordan, which led to the Black September conflict and his subsequent exile to Lebanon. Habash remained opposed to a two-state solution even after the PLO signed the Oslo Peace Accords in 1993. He resigned as secretary-general of the PFLP due to ill health in 2000, dying of a heart attack in 2008. He was also known by his kunya as \" al-Hakim \" ( Arabic : الحكيم , romanized : Al-Ḥakīm , lit. ' The Wise Man ' or ' The Doctor ' ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference bearer was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ ذكرى ميلاد حكيمُ الثورة وضميرُها.. القائد المؤسّس جورج حبش [The Anniversary of the Birth of the Hakim of the Revolution and its Consciousness, the Founding Leader George Habash]. Al-Hadaf (in Arabic). 1 August 2023. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. ^ Cite error: The named reference Khazziha was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Profile: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)\" . BBC News . 18 November 2014 . Retrieved 4 April 2025 . ^ Hirst, David (27 January 2008). \"George Habash\" . The Guardian . Retrieved 27 June 2024 . ^ \"George Habash: A Profile From the Archives\" . Jadaliyya جدلية . ^ Cite error: The named reference t20090128 was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "2000 Ramallah lynching",
   "pageid": 2985745,
   "revid_before": 1357087057,
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   "edited_at": "2026-07-26T01:07:48Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2000_Ramallah_lynching&oldid=1357087057",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2000_Ramallah_lynching&oldid=1366055800",
   "lead_before": "Killing of two Israeli military reservists in the West Bank The 2000 Ramallah lynching was an attack that took place early during the Second Intifada on 12 October 2000 in the Israeli-occupied West Bank , when a Palestinian crowd of passing funeral marchers broke into a Ramallah police station and killed two Israeli military reservists and then mutilated their bodies. The incident occurred during a funeral for a Palestinian child, Khalil Zahran, who had been killed by Israeli forces two days earlier. The two Israeli military reservists, Vadim Nurzhitz and Yossi Avrahami, had accidentally entered the Palestinian Authority -controlled city of Ramallah in the West Bank, and were taken into custody. 13 policemen were injured while trying to stop the assault. Tensions had been escalating prior to the incident; over 100 Palestinians, two dozen of them children, had been killed by Israeli forces in the preceding two weeks; the escalating violence had been condemned five days beforehand by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1322 . ^ Sources describing the event as a \" lynching \": Karon, Tony (12 October 2000). \"Ramallah lynching leaves peace in pieces\" . CNN . Retrieved 6 October 2023 . A lynching in a dusty West Bank town may have not only dashed the fragile hopes for ending the current violence in the Palestinian territories Levine, Cody (16 October 2020). \"Remembering the Ramallah Lynching, 20 years later\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 6 October 2023 . The lynching was perhaps a watershed moment in Israeli-Palestinian relations, and set the course of the next five years of great suffering. Shezaf, Hagar (21 June 2021). \"Two Decades After Ramallah Lynching, Two Palestinians Involved Receive Harsher Sentences\" . Haaretz . Retrieved 6 October 2023 . Two Decades After Ramallah Lynching, Two Palestinians Involved Receive Harsher Sentences Sterman, Adam (25 December 2013). \" 'We were in a craze to see blood' \" . The Times of Israel . Retrieved 6 October 2023 . Court releases testimonies of Palestinians who were involved in the brutal Ramallah lynching of two IDF soldiers in 2000 ^ Dixon, John (Autumn 2000). \"Jerusalem Chronology: 1 August 2000 - 31 October 2000\" . Jerusalem Quarterly (10): 51– 60. doi : 10.70190/jq.I10.p51 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Dor was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Zitun, Yoav; Levy, Elior (30 March 2017). \"2000 Ramallah lynch terrorist released from prison\" . Ynetnews . ^ Cite error: The named reference Spangler was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Pratt was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Killing of two Israeli military reservists in the West Bank The 2000 Ramallah lynching was an attack that took place early during the Second Intifada on 12 October 2000 in the Israeli-occupied West Bank , when a Palestinian crowd of passing funeral marchers broke into a Ramallah police station and killed two Israeli military reservists and then mutilated their bodies. The incident occurred during a funeral for a Palestinian, Khalil Zahran, who had been killed by Israeli forces two days earlier. The two Israeli military reservists, Vadim Nurzhitz and Yossi Avrahami, had accidentally entered the Palestinian Authority -controlled city of Ramallah in the West Bank, and were taken into custody. 13 policemen were injured while trying to stop the assault. Tensions had been escalating prior to the incident; over 100 Palestinians, two dozen of them children, had been killed by Israeli forces in the preceding two weeks; the escalating violence had been condemned five days beforehand by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1322 . ^ Sources describing the event as a \" lynching \": Karon, Tony (12 October 2000). \"Ramallah lynching leaves peace in pieces\" . CNN . Retrieved 6 October 2023 . A lynching in a dusty West Bank town may have not only dashed the fragile hopes for ending the current violence in the Palestinian territories Levine, Cody (16 October 2020). \"Remembering the Ramallah Lynching, 20 years later\" . The Jerusalem Post . Retrieved 6 October 2023 . The lynching was perhaps a watershed moment in Israeli-Palestinian relations, and set the course of the next five years of great suffering. Shezaf, Hagar (21 June 2021). \"Two Decades After Ramallah Lynching, Two Palestinians Involved Receive Harsher Sentences\" . Haaretz . Retrieved 6 October 2023 . Two Decades After Ramallah Lynching, Two Palestinians Involved Receive Harsher Sentences Sterman, Adam (25 December 2013). \" 'We were in a craze to see blood' \" . The Times of Israel . Retrieved 6 October 2023 . Court releases testimonies of Palestinians who were involved in the brutal Ramallah lynching of two IDF soldiers in 2000 ^ Dixon, John (Autumn 2000). \"Jerusalem Chronology: 1 August 2000 - 31 October 2000\" . Jerusalem Quarterly (10): 51– 60. doi : 10.70190/jq.I10.p51 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Dor was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Zitun, Yoav; Levy, Elior (30 March 2017). \"2000 Ramallah lynch terrorist released from prison\" . Ynetnews . ^ Cite error: The named reference Spangler was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Pratt was invoked but never defined (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion",
   "pageid": 19349705,
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   "lead_before": "1903 antisemitic text \"Protocols of Zion\" redirects here. For the 2005 American documentary film, see Protocols of Zion (film) . The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is an antisemitic hoax and forgery purporting to detail a Jewish plot for global domination. Largely plagiarized from several earlier sources, it was first published in Imperial Russia in 1903, translated into multiple languages, and disseminated internationally in the early part of the 20th century. It played a key part in popularizing belief in an international Jewish conspiracy . The text was exposed as a work of black propaganda by the British newspaper The Times in 1921 and by the German newspaper Frankfurter Zeitung in 1924. Beginning in 1933, distillations of the work were assigned by some German teachers, as if they were factual, to be read by German schoolchildren throughout Nazi Germany . It remains widely available in numerous languages, in print and on the Internet, and continues to be presented by some antisemitic groups as a genuine document. It has been described as \"probably the most influential work of antisemitism ever written\". Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Levy-2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Segel, Binjamin (1995). A Lie and a Libel: The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion . Translated by Levy, Richard S. University of Nebraska Press. p. 30. ISBN 0803242433 . ^ Bronner 2000 , p. 1.",
   "lead_after": "1903 antisemitic text \"Protocols of Zion\" redirects here. For the 2005 American documentary film, see Protocols of Zion (film) . The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is an antisemitic hoax and forgery purporting to detail a Jewish plot for global domination. Largely plagiarized from several earlier sources, it was first published in Imperial Russia in 1903, translated into multiple languages, and disseminated internationally in the early part of the 20th century. It played a key part in popularizing belief in an international Jewish conspiracy . The text was exposed as a work of black propaganda by the British newspaper The Times in 1921 and by the German newspaper Frankfurter Zeitung in 1924. Beginning in 1933, distillations of the work were assigned by some German teachers, as if they were factual, to be read by German schoolchildren throughout Nazi Germany . It remains widely available in numerous languages, in print and on the Internet, and continues to be presented by some antisemitic groups as a genuine document. It has been described as \"probably the most influential work of antisemitism ever written\". Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Levy-2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Segel, Binjamin (1995). A Lie and a Libel: The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion . Translated by Levy, Richard S. University of Nebraska Press. p. 30. ISBN 0803242433 . ^ Bronner 2000 , p. 1."
  },
  {
   "title": "Cave of the Patriarchs massacre",
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   "lead_before": "1994 shooting massacre in Hebron On 25 February 1994, Baruch Goldstein , an American-Israeli physician and member of the far-right ultra-Zionist Kach movement, carried out a mass shooting of Palestinians who were praying in the Ibrahimi Mosque (Cave of the Patriarchs) in Hebron . Goldstein, dressed in Israeli army uniform, opened fire with an assault rifle and killed 29 people, including children as young as 12, and wounded 125 others. Goldstein was overpowered and beaten to death by survivors. The atrocity , which occurred during the Jewish holiday of Purim and the Islamic holy month of Ramadan , strained the Israeli-Palestinian Oslo Accords peace process, immediately setting off mass protests by Palestinians throughout the West Bank . During the ensuing clashes, 20 to 26 Palestinians were killed while 120 were injured in confrontations with the Israeli military , and 9 Israeli Jews were also killed. Goldstein was widely denounced in Israel and by communities in the Jewish diaspora , with many attributing his act to insanity. Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin condemned the attack, describing Goldstein as a \"degenerate murderer\" and \"a shame on Zionism and an embarrassment to Judaism\". Some Jewish settlers in Hebron lauded him as a hero, viewing his attack as a pre-emptive strike and his subsequent death as an act of martyrdom . Following statements in support of Goldstein's actions, the Jewish ultranationalist Kach party was banned and designated a terrorist organization by the Israeli government . ^ George J. Church, \"When Fury Rules\" , Time 7 March 1994 (subscription required) ^ Cook, William (2010). The plight of the Palestinians: a long history of destruction (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 45. ISBN 9780230100374 . ^ Issacharoff, Avi; Levinson, Chaim (28 February 2010). \"Settlers Remember Gunman Goldstein; Hebron Riots Continue\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 6 January 2014 . Retrieved 25 February 2024 . ^ Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger Jewish Terrorism in Israel ( Archived 3 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine ). Columbia University Press, 2011. p. 70. ^ Paul G. Pierpaolo, Jr, \"Hebron Mosque Massacre\", in Spencer C. Tucker , Priscilla Roberts (eds.), The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History ( Archived 3 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine ). ABC-CLIO, 2008. p. 438. ^ Brekke, Torkel (13 March 2006). The Ethics of War in Asian Civilizations: A Comparative Perspective . Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-29152-6 . Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. ^ 1 Wilson, Rodney. 2007. Review Article: Islam and Terrorism. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies . 34(2):203–213. {{Doi:10.1080/13530190701427933}}. Accessed 29 August 2010). ^ Haberman, Clyde (1 March 1994). \"West Bank Massacre: The Overview; Rabin Urges the Palestinians To Put Aside Anger and Talk\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 21 February 2012 . Retrieved 28 April 2010 . ^ Alan Cowell (2 March 1994). \"West Bank Massacre; In 'Tragic Error,' Soldiers Kill a Settler\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2018 . Retrieved 27 July 2018 . ^ Youssef M. Ibrahim (6 March 1994). \"The World; Palestinians See a People's Hatred in a Killer's Deed\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 25 July 2018 . Retrieved 27 July 2018 . ^ Sarah Helm (28 February 1994). \"Hebron settlers shed no tears after slaughter: Militant Jews are turning mass killer Baruch Goldstein into a folk hero, writes Sarah Helm from Kiryat Arba\" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 25 September 2015 . Retrieved 25 August 2017 . ^ In the Spotlight: Kach and Kahane Chai Center for Defense Information, 1 October 2002 Archived 22 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine",
   "lead_after": "1994 shooting massacre in Hebron On 25 February 1994, Baruch Goldstein , an American-Israeli physician and member of the far-right ultra-Zionist Kach movement, carried out a mass shooting of Palestinians who were praying in the Ibrahimi Mosque (Cave of the Patriarchs) in Hebron . Goldstein, dressed in Israeli army uniform, opened fire with an assault rifle and killed 29 people, including children as young as 12, and wounded 125 others. Goldstein was overpowered and beaten to death by survivors. The atrocity , which occurred during the Jewish holiday of Purim and the Islamic holy month of Ramadan , strained the Israeli-Palestinian Oslo Accords peace process, immediately setting off mass protests by Palestinians throughout the West Bank . During the ensuing clashes, 20 to 26 Palestinians were killed while 120 were injured in confrontations with the Israeli military , and 9 Israeli Jews were also killed. Goldstein was widely denounced in Israel and by communities in the Jewish diaspora , with many attributing his act to insanity. Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin condemned the attack, describing Goldstein as a \"degenerate murderer\" and \"a shame on Zionism and an embarrassment to Judaism\". Some Jewish settlers in Hebron lauded him as a hero, viewing his attack as a pre-emptive strike and his subsequent death as an act of martyrdom . Following statements in support of Goldstein's actions, the Jewish ultranationalist Kach party was banned and designated a terrorist organization by the Israeli government . ^ George J. Church, \"When Fury Rules\" , Time 7 March 1994 (subscription required) ^ Cook, William (2010). The plight of the Palestinians: a long history of destruction (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 45. ISBN 9780230100374 . ^ Issacharoff, Avi; Levinson, Chaim (28 February 2010). \"Settlers Remember Gunman Goldstein; Hebron Riots Continue\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on 6 January 2014 . Retrieved 25 February 2024 . ^ Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger Jewish Terrorism in Israel ( Archived 3 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine ). Columbia University Press, 2011. p. 70. ^ Paul G. Pierpaolo, Jr, \"Hebron Mosque Massacre\", in Spencer C. Tucker , Priscilla Roberts (eds.), The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History ( Archived 3 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine ). ABC-CLIO, 2008. p. 438. ^ Brekke, Torkel (13 March 2006). The Ethics of War in Asian Civilizations: A Comparative Perspective . Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-29152-6 . Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. ^ 1 Wilson, Rodney. 2007. Review Article: Islam and Terrorism. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies . 34(2):203–213. {{Doi:10.1080/13530190701427933}}. Accessed 29 August 2010). ^ Haberman, Clyde (1 March 1994). \"West Bank Massacre: The Overview; Rabin Urges the Palestinians To Put Aside Anger and Talk\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 21 February 2012 . Retrieved 28 April 2010 . ^ Alan Cowell (2 March 1994). \"West Bank Massacre; In 'Tragic Error,' Soldiers Kill a Settler\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 28 July 2018 . Retrieved 27 July 2018 . ^ Youssef M. Ibrahim (6 March 1994). \"The World; Palestinians See a People's Hatred in a Killer's Deed\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 25 July 2018 . Retrieved 27 July 2018 . ^ Sarah Helm (28 February 1994). \"Hebron settlers shed no tears after slaughter: Militant Jews are turning mass killer Baruch Goldstein into a folk hero, writes Sarah Helm from Kiryat Arba\" . The Independent . Archived from the original on 25 September 2015 . Retrieved 25 August 2017 . ^ In the Spotlight: Kach and Kahane Chai Center for Defense Information, 1 October 2002 Archived 22 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine"
  },
  {
   "title": "1948 Arab–Israeli War",
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   "lead_before": "Second and final stage of the 1948 Palestine war This article is about the international phase of the 1948 Palestine war . For the preceding civil war phase, see 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine . Belligerents Israel Before 26 May 1948 : Haganah Palmach Hish HIM Irgun Lehi Druze militants Allied Bedouin tribes After 26 May 1948 : Israel Defense Forces Minorities Unit Foreign volunteers: Mahal Arab League Egypt All-Palestine Protectorate Holy War Army Transjordan Iraq Syria Lebanon Saudi Arabia Yemen Irregulars : Arab Liberation Army Al-Najjada Holy War Army Muslim Brotherhood Commanders and leaders David Ben-Gurion Yisrael Galili Yaakov Dori Yigael Yadin Mickey Marcus † Yigal Allon Yitzhak Rabin David Shaltiel Moshe Dayan Shimon Avidan Moshe Carmel Yitzhak Sadeh Azzam Pasha Farouk Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi Mohamed Naguib Abdallah I John Bagot Glubb Habis Majali Muzahim al-Pachachi Shukri al-Quwatli Amin al-Husseini Hasan Salama † Fawzi al-Qawuqji Hassan al-Banna Strength 29,677 initially; later 117,500 10,000 initially; later 20,000 7,500–10,000 2,000 initially; later 15,000–18,000 2,500–5,000 1,000 800–1,200 (Egyptian command) 300 3,500–6,000 Total: 13,000 (initial) 51,100–63,500 Casualties and losses 6,373 killed (about 4,000 fighters and 2,400 civilians) Arab armies: 3,700–7,000 killed Palestinian Arabs: 3,000–13,000 killed (both fighters and civilians) 750,000+ Arabs flee or are expelled from Palestine forming the Palestinian diaspora Hundreds of thousands of Jews flee or are expelled from Arab countries, with over 260,000 in Israel by 1951. The 1948 Arab–Israeli War (15 May 1948 – 10 March 1949), also known as the First Arab–Israeli War , followed the civil war in Mandatory Palestine (29 November 1947 – 14 May 1948) as the second and final stage of the 1948 Palestine war . The civil war became a war of separate states with the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948, the end of the British Mandate for Palestine at midnight, and the invasion by a military coalition of Arab states into the territory of Mandatory Palestine the following morning. The war formally ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreements which established the Green Line . Since the 1917 Balfour Declaration and the 1920 creation of the British Mandate of Palestine, and in the context of Zionism and the mass migration of European Jews to Palestine , there had been tension and conflict between Arabs, Jews, and the British in Palestine. The conflict escalated into a civil war on 30 November 1947, the day after the United Nations adopted the Partition Plan for Palestine proposing to divide the territory into an Arab state, a Jewish state, and an internationally administered corpus separatum for the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem . The civil war began with attacks by Arab militias and mobs on Jewish areas as a reaction to the UN Partition Plan vote. As the two communities battled, the British withdrew. In April 1948, Zionist forces launched an offensive codenamed Plan Dalet , during which they conquered and depopulated cities, villages, and territories in Mandatory Palestine in preparation for the establishment of a Jewish state. Just before the expiration of the British Mandate for Palestine , Zionist leaders announced the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948. The following morning, Egypt , Transjordan , Syria , and expeditionary forces from Iraq launched an invasion into Palestine, taking control of the Arab areas and attacking Israeli forces and settlements. The 10 months of fighting took place mostly on the territory of the British Mandate and in the Sinai Peninsula and southern Lebanon , interrupted by several truce periods. By the end of the war, the State of Israel controlled about 78% of the former territory of Mandatory Palestine: all of the area that the UN had proposed for a Jewish state, as well as almost 60% of the area proposed for an Arab state, including Jaffa , Lydda and Ramla (Ramle) area, Upper Galilee , some parts of the Negev , the west coast as far as Gaza City , and a wide strip along the Tel Aviv – Jerusalem road. Israel also took control of West Jerusalem , which was meant to be part of an international zone for Jerusalem and its environs. Transjordan took control of East Jerusalem and what became known as the West Bank , annexing it the following year . The territory known today as the Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt . Expulsions of Palestinians , which had begun during the civil war, continued during the Arab-Israeli war. Hundreds of Palestinians were killed in multiple massacres , such as occurred in the expulsions from Lydda and Ramla . These events are known today as the Nakba ( Arabic for \"the catastrophe\") and were the beginning of the Palestinian refugee problem . A similar number of Jews fled or were expelled from the surrounding Arab states in the three years following the war, 260,000 of which went to Israel. ^ Nisan, Mordechai (2015). Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle and Self-Expression (2d ed.). McFarland. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-7864-5133-3 . This Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred to as a \"covenant of blood,\" in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country. ^ \"The Druze in Israel: Questions of Identity, Citizenship, and Patriotism\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . ^ Palestine Post , \"Israel's Bedouin Warriors\", Gene Dison, August 12, 1948 ^ AFP (24 April 2013). \"Bedouin army trackers scale Israel social ladder\" . Al Arabiya English . Al Arabiya . Archived from the original on 31 March 2022 . Retrieved 7 May 2015 . ^ Oren 2003, p. 5. ^ Morris (2008), p. 260. ^ Gelber, pp. 55, 200, 239 ^ Morris, Benny (2008), 1948: The First Arab-Israeli War , Yale University Press , p. 205, New Haven, ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9 . ^ Anita Shapira, L'imaginaire d'Israël : histoire d'une culture politique (2005), Latroun : la mémoire de la bataille , Chap. III. 1 l'événement pp. 91–96 ^ Benny Morris (2008), p. 419. ^ Gelber (2006), p. 12. ^ Micheal Clodfelter (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). McFarland & Company . p. 571. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7 . Archived from the original on 20 March 2023 . Retrieved 28 September 2020 . ^ Tucker, Spencer (2010). The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf . ABC-CLIO. p. 662. ISBN 978-1-85109-948-1 . Archived from the original on 20 March 2023 . Retrieved 5 October 2019 . ^ Hughes, Matthew (Winter 2005). \"Lebanon's Armed Forces and the Arab-Israeli War, 1948–49\". Journal of Palestine Studies . 34 (2): 24– 41. doi : 10.1525/jps.2005.34.2.024 . ISSN 0377-919X . S2CID 154088601 . ^ Cite error: The named reference politics was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference laurens was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Morris 2008, pp. 404–406. ^ Hacohen, Dvora (2003). \"Aliyah to Israel by Country of Origin and Year of Aliyah, 14 May 1948–31 December 1953\" . Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After . Syracuse University Press . ISBN 978-0-8156-2969-6 . Retrieved 18 February 2024 . ^ Morris, 2001, pp. 259–260. ^ Fischbach, Michael R. Jewish Property Claims Against Arab Countries . Columbia University Press, 2008, p. 27 ^ Khalidi, Walid (1 October 1988). \"Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine\" . Journal of Palestine Studies . 18 (1): 4– 19. doi : 10.2307/2537591 . ISSN 0377-919X . JSTOR 2537591 . 'Plan Dalet' or 'Plan D' was the name given by the Zionist High Command to the general plan for military operations within the framework of which the Zionists launched successive offensives in April and early May 1948 in various parts of Palestine. These offensives, which entailed the destruction of the Palestinian Arab community and the expulsion and pauperization of the bulk of the Palestine Arabs, were calculated to achieve the military fait accompli upon which the state of Israel was to be based. ^ *David Tal, War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy, p. 153. Shlamim, Avi (19 November 2007), \"Israel and the Arab coalition in 1948\" , The War for Palestine , Cambridge University Press, pp. 228– 247, doi : 10.1017/cbo9781139167413.014 , ISBN 978-0-521-87598-1 , archived from the original on 20 March 2023, In the first phase of the conflict, from the passage of the United Nations partition resolution on 29 November 1947 until the proclamation of statehood on 14 May 1948, the Yishuv had to defend itself against attacks from Palestinian irregulars and volunteers from the Arab world. Following the proclamation of the state of Israel, however, the neighboring Arab states and Iraq committed their regular armies to the battle against the Jewish state Book: What Happened Where Archived 22 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine , p. 307, by Chris Cook and Diccon Bewes, published by Routledge, section from book: Arab-Israeli War 1948–9: Israel was invaded by the armies of its Arab neighbours on the day the British Mandate ended, 15 May 1948. After initial Arab gains, Israel counter-attacked successfully, enlarging its national territory... Tal, David (2004). War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy . Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-415-76137-6 . OCLC 881747492 . The invasion of Palestine by the Arab Armies started on 15 May, when the Iraqi, Syrian, Jordanian and Egyptian forces crossed the international border. ^ Benny Morris (2008), p. 401. ^ Cite error: The named reference morris2008p236 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Zeev Maoz, Defending the Holy Land , University of Michigan Press, 2009 p. 4: 'A combined invasion of a Jordanian and Egyptian army started ... The Syrian and the Lebanese armies engaged in a token effort but did not stage a major attack on the Jewish state.' ^ Rogan and Shlaim 2007 p. 99. ^ Cragg 1997 pp. 57, 116. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).",
   "lead_after": "Second and final stage of the 1948 Palestine war This article is about the international phase of the 1948 Palestine war . For the preceding civil war phase, see 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine . Belligerents Israel Before 26 May 1948: Haganah Palmach Hish HIM Irgun Lehi Druze militants Allied Bedouin tribes After 26 May 1948: Israel Defense Forces IDF Minorities Unit Foreign volunteers: Mahal Arab League Egypt All-Palestine Protectorate Holy War Army Transjordan Iraq Syria Lebanon Saudi Arabia Yemen Irregulars: Arab Liberation Army Al-Najjada Holy War Army Muslim Brotherhood Commanders and leaders David Ben-Gurion Yisrael Galili Yaakov Dori Yigael Yadin Mickey Marcus † Yigal Allon Yitzhak Rabin David Shaltiel Moshe Dayan Shimon Avidan Moshe Carmel Yitzhak Sadeh Azzam Pasha Farouk Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi Mohamed Naguib Abdallah I John Bagot Glubb Habis Majali Muzahim al-Pachachi Shukri al-Quwatli Amin al-Husseini Hasan Salama † Fawzi al-Qawuqji Hassan al-Banna Strength 29,677 initially; later 117,500 10,000 initially; later 20,000 7,500–10,000 2,000 initially; later 15,000–18,000 2,500–5,000 1,000 800–1,200 (Egyptian command) 300 3,500–6,000 Total: 13,000 (initial) 51,100–63,500 Casualties and losses 6,373 killed (about 4,000 fighters and 2,400 civilians) Arab armies: 3,700–7,000 killed Palestinian Arabs: 3,000–13,000 killed (both fighters and civilians) 750,000+ Arabs flee or are expelled from Palestine forming the Palestinian diaspora Hundreds of thousands of Jews flee or are expelled from Arab countries, with over 260,000 in Israel by 1951. The 1948 Arab–Israeli War (15 May 1948 – 10 March 1949), also known as the First Arab–Israeli War , followed the civil war in Mandatory Palestine (29 November 1947 – 14 May 1948) as the second and final stage of the 1948 Palestine war . The civil war became a war of separate states with the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948, the end of the British Mandate for Palestine at midnight, and the entry of a military coalition of Arab states into the territory of Mandatory Palestine the following morning. The war formally ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreements which established the Green Line . Since the 1917 Balfour Declaration and the 1920 creation of the British Mandate of Palestine, and in the context of Zionism and the mass migration of European Jews to Palestine , there had been tension and conflict between Arabs, Jews, and the British in Palestine. The conflict escalated into a civil war on 30 November 1947, the day after the United Nations adopted the Partition Plan for Palestine proposing to divide the territory into an Arab state, a Jewish state, and an internationally administered corpus separatum for the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem . The civil war began with attacks by Arab militias and mobs on Jewish areas as a reaction to the UN Partition Plan vote. As the two communities battled, the British withdrew. In April 1948, Zionist forces launched an offensive codenamed Plan Dalet , during which they conquered and depopulated cities, villages, and territories in Mandatory Palestine in preparation for the establishment of a Jewish state. Just before the expiration of the British Mandate for Palestine , Zionist leaders announced the Israeli Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948. The following morning, Egypt , Transjordan , Syria , and expeditionary forces from Iraq launched an invasion into Palestine, taking control of the Arab areas and attacking Israeli forces and settlements. The 10 months of fighting took place mostly on the territory of the British Mandate and in the Sinai Peninsula and southern Lebanon , interrupted by several truce periods. By the end of the war, the State of Israel controlled about 78% of the former territory of Mandatory Palestine: all of the area that the UN had proposed for a Jewish state, as well as almost 60% of the area proposed for an Arab state, including Jaffa , Lydda and Ramla (Ramle) area, Upper Galilee , some parts of the Negev , the west coast as far as Gaza City , and a wide strip along the Tel Aviv – Jerusalem road. Israel also took control of West Jerusalem , which was meant to be part of an international zone for Jerusalem and its environs. Transjordan took control of East Jerusalem and what became known as the West Bank , annexing it the following year . The territory known today as the Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt . Expulsions of Palestinians , which had begun during the civil war, continued during the Arab-Israeli war. Hundreds of Palestinians were killed in multiple massacres , such as occurred in the expulsions from Lydda and Ramla . These events are known today as the Nakba ( Arabic for \"the catastrophe\") and were the beginning of the Palestinian refugee problem . A similar number of Jews fled or were expelled from the surrounding Arab states in the three years following the war, 260,000 of which went to Israel. ^ Nisan, Mordechai (2015). Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle and Self-Expression (2d ed.). McFarland. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-7864-5133-3 . This Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred to as a \"covenant of blood,\" in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country. ^ \"The Druze in Israel: Questions of Identity, Citizenship, and Patriotism\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016 . Retrieved 24 February 2022 . ^ Palestine Post , \"Israel's Bedouin Warriors\", Gene Dison, August 12, 1948 ^ AFP (24 April 2013). \"Bedouin army trackers scale Israel social ladder\" . Al Arabiya English . Al Arabiya . Archived from the original on 31 March 2022 . Retrieved 7 May 2015 . ^ Oren 2003, p. 5. ^ Morris (2008), p. 260. ^ Gelber, pp. 55, 200, 239 ^ Morris, Benny (2008), 1948: The First Arab-Israeli War , Yale University Press , p. 205, New Haven, ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9 . ^ Anita Shapira, L'imaginaire d'Israël : histoire d'une culture politique (2005), Latroun : la mémoire de la bataille , Chap. III. 1 l'événement pp. 91–96 ^ Benny Morris (2008), p. 419. ^ Gelber (2006), p. 12. ^ Micheal Clodfelter (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). McFarland & Company . p. 571. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7 . Archived from the original on 20 March 2023 . Retrieved 28 September 2020 . ^ Tucker, Spencer (2010). The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf . ABC-CLIO. p. 662. ISBN 978-1-85109-948-1 . Archived from the original on 20 March 2023 . Retrieved 5 October 2019 . ^ Hughes, Matthew (Winter 2005). \"Lebanon's Armed Forces and the Arab-Israeli War, 1948–49\". Journal of Palestine Studies . 34 (2): 24– 41. doi : 10.1525/jps.2005.34.2.024 . ISSN 0377-919X . S2CID 154088601 . ^ Cite error: The named reference politics was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference laurens was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Morris 2008, pp. 404–406. ^ Hacohen, Dvora (2003). \"Aliyah to Israel by Country of Origin and Year of Aliyah, 14 May 1948–31 December 1953\" . Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After . Syracuse University Press . ISBN 978-0-8156-2969-6 . Retrieved 18 February 2024 . ^ Morris, 2001, pp. 259–260. ^ Fischbach, Michael R. Jewish Property Claims Against Arab Countries . Columbia University Press, 2008, p. 27 ^ Khalidi, Walid (1 October 1988). \"Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine\" . Journal of Palestine Studies . 18 (1): 4– 19. doi : 10.2307/2537591 . ISSN 0377-919X . JSTOR 2537591 . 'Plan Dalet' or 'Plan D' was the name given by the Zionist High Command to the general plan for military operations within the framework of which the Zionists launched successive offensives in April and early May 1948 in various parts of Palestine. These offensives, which entailed the destruction of the Palestinian Arab community and the expulsion and pauperization of the bulk of the Palestine Arabs, were calculated to achieve the military fait accompli upon which the state of Israel was to be based. ^ *David Tal, War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy, p. 153. Shlamim, Avi (19 November 2007), \"Israel and the Arab coalition in 1948\" , The War for Palestine , Cambridge University Press, pp. 228– 247, doi : 10.1017/cbo9781139167413.014 , ISBN 978-0-521-87598-1 , archived from the original on 20 March 2023, In the first phase of the conflict, from the passage of the United Nations partition resolution on 29 November 1947 until the proclamation of statehood on 14 May 1948, the Yishuv had to defend itself against attacks from Palestinian irregulars and volunteers from the Arab world. Following the proclamation of the state of Israel, however, the neighboring Arab states and Iraq committed their regular armies to the battle against the Jewish state Book: What Happened Where Archived 22 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine , p. 307, by Chris Cook and Diccon Bewes, published by Routledge, section from book: Arab-Israeli War 1948–9: Israel was invaded by the armies of its Arab neighbours on the day the British Mandate ended, 15 May 1948. After initial Arab gains, Israel counter-attacked successfully, enlarging its national territory... Tal, David (2004). War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy . Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-415-76137-6 . OCLC 881747492 . The invasion of Palestine by the Arab Armies started on 15 May, when the Iraqi, Syrian, Jordanian and Egyptian forces crossed the international border. ^ Benny Morris (2008), p. 401. ^ Cite error: The named reference morris2008p236 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Zeev Maoz, Defending the Holy Land , University of Michigan Press, 2009 p. 4: 'A combined invasion of a Jordanian and Egyptian army started ... The Syrian and the Lebanese armies engaged in a token effort but did not stage a major attack on the Jewish state.' ^ Rogan and Shlaim 2007 p. 99. ^ Cragg 1997 pp. 57, 116. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page )."
  },
  {
   "title": "Balfour Declaration",
   "pageid": 4820,
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Balfour_Declaration&oldid=1361822194",
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   "lead_before": "British government statement of 1917 For the document on the Dominions of the British Empire, see Balfour Declaration of 1926 . Second Temple period Timeline Rabbinic period and the Middle Ages Modern era Timeline 1517–1948: Ottoman rule Old Yishuv Zionism Yishuv OETA British Mandate Balfour Declaration 1948–present : State of Israel years Independence Arab–Israeli conflict Iran–Israel proxy conflict By topic Demographics Judaism Leaders Warfare Zionism Jerusalem Related Jewish history Hebrew calendar Archaeology Museums Maps Travelogues Israel portal v t e The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a \"national home for the Jewish people\" in Palestine , then an Ottoman region with a small Jewish minority among an overwhelming Arab majority, mostly Muslim but also including Christians. The declaration was contained in a letter dated 2 November 1917 from Arthur Balfour , the British foreign secretary , to Lord Rothschild , a leader of the British Jewish community , for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland . The text of the declaration was published in the press on 9 November 1917. Following Britain's declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, it had begun to consider the future of Palestine. Within two months a memorandum was circulated to the War Cabinet by a Zionist member, Herbert Samuel , proposing support of Zionist ambitions in order to gain the support of Jews in the current war. A committee was established in April 1915 by British prime minister H. H. Asquith to determine policy towards the Ottoman Empire including Palestine. Asquith, who had favoured post-war reform of the Ottoman Empire, resigned in December 1916; his replacement David Lloyd George favoured partition of the Empire. The first negotiations between the British and the Zionists took place at a conference on 7 February 1917 that included Sir Mark Sykes and the Zionist leadership. Subsequent discussions led to Balfour's request, on 19 June, that Rothschild and Chaim Weizmann draft a public declaration. Further drafts were discussed by the British Cabinet during September and October, with input from Zionist and anti-Zionist Jews but with no representation from the large local Arab population in Palestine. By late 1917, the wider war had reached a stalemate, with two of Britain's allies not fully engaged: the United States had yet to suffer a casualty, and the Russians were in the midst of a revolution . A stalemate in southern Palestine was broken by the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917. The release of the final declaration was authorised on 31 October; the preceding Cabinet discussion had referred to perceived propaganda benefits amongst the worldwide Jewish community for the Allied war effort. The opening words of the declaration represented the first public expression of support for Zionism by a major political power. The term \"national home\" had no precedent in international law, and was intentionally vague as to whether a Jewish state was contemplated. The intended boundaries of Palestine were not specified. The British government later confirmed that the words \"in Palestine\" meant that the Jewish national home was not intended to cover all of Palestine. The second half of the declaration was added to satisfy opponents of the policy, who had claimed that it would otherwise prejudice the position of the local population of Palestine and encourage antisemitism worldwide by \"stamping the Jews as strangers in their native lands\". The declaration called for safeguarding the civil and religious rights for the Palestinian Arabs , who composed the vast majority of the local population , and also the rights and political status of the Jewish communities in countries outside of Palestine. The British government acknowledged in 1939 that the local population's wishes and interests should have been taken into account. In 2018 it officially recognised that the declaration should have called for the protection of the Palestinian Arabs' political rights. The declaration greatly increased popular support for Zionism within Jewish communities worldwide . It became a core component of the British Mandate for Palestine , the founding document of Mandatory Palestine . It indirectly led to the emergence of the State of Israel . It is considered to be a principal cause of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict – often described as the most intractable in the world. Controversy remains over numerous issues, such as whether the declaration contradicted earlier promises the British had made to the Sharif of Mecca in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence .",
   "lead_after": "British government statement of 1917 For the document on the Dominions of the British Empire, see Balfour Declaration of 1926 . Second Temple period Timeline Rabbinic period and the Middle Ages Modern era Timeline 1517–1948: Ottoman rule Old Yishuv Zionism Yishuv OETA British Mandate Balfour Declaration 1948–present : State of Israel years Independence Arab–Israeli conflict Iran–Israel proxy conflict By topic Demographics Judaism Leaders Warfare Zionism Jerusalem Related Jewish history Hebrew calendar Archaeology Museums Maps Travelogues Israel portal v t e The Balfour Declaration (2 November 1917) was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a \"national home for the Jewish people\" in Palestine , then an Ottoman region with a small Jewish minority among an overwhelming Arab majority, mostly Muslim but also including Christians. The declaration was contained in a letter dated 2 November 1917 from Arthur Balfour , the British foreign secretary , to Lord Rothschild , a leader of the British Jewish community , for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland . The text of the declaration was published in the press on 9 November 1917. Following Britain's declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, it had begun to consider the future of Palestine. Within two months a memorandum was circulated to the War Cabinet by a Zionist member, Herbert Samuel , proposing support of Zionist ambitions in order to gain the support of Jews in the current war. A committee was established in April 1915 by British prime minister H. H. Asquith to determine policy towards the Ottoman Empire including Palestine. Asquith, who had favoured post-war reform of the Ottoman Empire, resigned in December 1916; his replacement David Lloyd George favoured partition of the Empire. The first negotiations between the British and the Zionists took place at a conference on 7 February 1917 that included Sir Mark Sykes and the Zionist leadership. Subsequent discussions led to Balfour's request, on 19 June, that Rothschild and Chaim Weizmann draft a public declaration. Further drafts were discussed by the British Cabinet during September and October, with input from Zionist and anti-Zionist Jews but with no representation from the large local Arab population in Palestine. By late 1917, the wider war had reached a stalemate, with two of Britain's allies not fully engaged: the United States had yet to suffer a casualty, and the Russians were in the midst of a revolution . A stalemate in southern Palestine was broken by the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917. The release of the final declaration was authorised on 31 October; the preceding Cabinet discussion had referred to perceived propaganda benefits amongst the worldwide Jewish community for the Allied war effort. The opening words of the declaration represented the first public expression of support for Zionism by a major political power. The term \"national home\" had no precedent in international law, and was intentionally vague as to whether a Jewish state was contemplated. The intended boundaries of Palestine were not specified. The British government later confirmed that the words \"in Palestine\" meant that the Jewish national home was not intended to cover all of Palestine. The second half of the declaration was added to satisfy opponents of the policy, who had claimed that it would otherwise prejudice the position of the local population of Palestine and encourage antisemitism worldwide by \"stamping the Jews as strangers in their native lands\". The declaration called for safeguarding the civil and religious rights for the Palestinian Arabs , who composed the vast majority of the local population , and also the rights and political status of the Jewish communities in countries outside of Palestine. The British government acknowledged in 1939 that the local population's wishes and interests should have been taken into account. In 2018 it officially recognised that the declaration should have called for the protection of the Palestinian Arabs' political rights. The declaration greatly increased popular support for Zionism within Jewish communities worldwide . It became a core component of the British Mandate for Palestine , the founding document of Mandatory Palestine . It indirectly led to the emergence of the State of Israel . It is considered to be a principal cause of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict – often described as the most intractable in the world. Controversy remains over numerous issues, such as whether the declaration contradicted earlier promises the British had made to the Sharif of Mecca in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence ."
  },
  {
   "title": "United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine",
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   "lead_before": "1947 plan to divide British Palestine \"Partition of Palestine\" redirects here. For the partition of Mandatory Palestine into Israel, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank, see 1949 Armistice Agreements . United Nations resolution adopted in 1947 The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a proposal by the United Nations to partition Mandatory Palestine at the end of the British Mandate . Drafted by the UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) on 3 September 1947, the Plan was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 29 November 1947 as Resolution 181 (II) . The resolution recommended the creation of independent but economically linked Arab and Jewish states and an extraterritorial \" Special International Regime \" for the city of Jerusalem and its surroundings. The Partition Plan, a four-part document attached to the resolution, provided for the termination of the Mandate; the gradual withdrawal of British armed forces by no later than 1 August 1948; and the delineation of boundaries between the two states and Jerusalem at least two months after the withdrawal, but no later than 1 October 1948. The Arab state was to have a territory of 11,592 square kilometres, or 42.88 percent of the Mandate's territory, and the Jewish state a territory of 15,264 square kilometres, or 56.47 percent; the remaining 0.65 percent or 176 square kilometres—comprising Jerusalem, Bethlehem and the adjoining area—would become an international zone . The Plan also called for an economic union between the proposed states and for the protection of religious and minority rights. The Plan sought to address the conflicting objectives and claims of two competing movements: Palestinian nationalism and Jewish nationalism in the form of Zionism . Jewish organizations collaborated with UNSCOP during the deliberations, while Palestinian Arab leadership boycotted it. The Plan's detractors considered the proposal to be pro-Zionist, as it allocated most land to the Jewish state despite Palestinian Arabs numbering twice the Jewish population. The Plan was celebrated by most Jews in Palestine and reluctantly accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine with misgivings. Zionist leaders, in particular David Ben-Gurion , viewed the acceptance of the plan as a tactical step and a steppingstone to future territorial expansion over all of Palestine . The Arab Higher Committee , the Arab League and other Arab leaders and governments rejected the Plan, as aside from Arabs forming a two-thirds majority, they owned most of the territory. They also indicated an unwillingness to accept any form of territorial division, arguing that it violated the principles of national self-determination in the UN Charter that granted people the right to decide their own destiny. They announced their intention to take all necessary measures to prevent the implementation of the resolution. The plan was not implemented and a civil war quickly broke out in Palestine, eventually becoming a larger regional war , and leading to the expulsion and flight of 85% of the Palestinians living in the areas that became the State of Israel . ^ \"A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947\" . United Nations General Assembly. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 4 January 2018 . ^ \"UN General Assembly Resolution 181 (II)\" (PDF) (in English and French). ^ Galina Nikitina , The State of Israel: A Historical, Economic and Political Study / By Galina Nikitina / 1973, Progress Publishers / p. 50. ^ Nikitana, Galina Stepanovna (1973). The State of Israel; a Historical Economic and Political Study . Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 56. ^ Asadi, Fawzi (1 October 1976). \"Some Geographic Elements in The Arab-Israeli Conflict\" . Journal of Palestine Studies . 6 (1): 79– 91. doi : 10.2307/2535720 . ISSN 0377-919X . JSTOR 2535720 . ^ Палестина / Л. А. Беляев, С. Б. Григорян, П. А. Рассадин (с 1939), М. Ю. Рощин // Большая российская энциклопедия : (в 35 т.) / гл. ред. Ю. С. Осипов. – М. : Большая российская энциклопедия, 2004–2017. ^ Cite error: The named reference undocs.org/A/364 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Quandt, William Baver; Quandt, William B.; Jabber, Fuad; Jabber, Paul; Lesch, Ann Mosely (1 January 1973). The Politics of Palestinian Nationalism . University of California Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-520-02372-7 . ^ Molinaro, Enrico (1 April 2009). Holy Places of Jerusalem in Middle East Peace Agreements: The Conflict Between Global and State Identities . Liverpool: Liverpool University Press . p. 78. ISBN 978-1845193355 . ^ Cite error: The named reference UN was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"BBC News\" . news.bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 23 October 2023 . ^ Ben-Dror 2007 , pp. 259–7260: \"The Arabs overwhelmingly rejected UNSCOP’s recommendations. The Arabs’ list of arguments against the majority’s conclusions was indeed a long one. A Palestinian historian summarized it by saying ‘Everything about it was Zionist’. When one takes into consideration the majority’s recommendations and the enthusiasm with which these recommendations were accepted by the Zionist leadership, then one can indeed affirm that claim. UNSCOP recommended an independent Jewish state, although the Arabs firmly objected to the principle of independence for the Jews, and did so in a way very generous to the Jews. More than half of the area of Palestine (62 percent) was allocated to be a Jewish state and the Arab state was supposed to make do with the remaining area, although the Palestinian Arab population numbered as much as twice the Jewish population in the land. The pro-Zionist results from UNSCOP confirmed the Arabs’ basic suspicions towards the committee. Even before the onset of its inquiry in Palestine, argued the Arabs, most of its members took a pro-Zionist stand. In addition, according to the Arabs, the committee’s final object – the partition – was pre-decided by the Americans. According to this opinion, the outcome of the UNSCOP inquiry was a foregone conclusion. This perception, which led the Palestinian Arabs to boycott the committee, is shared by some modern studies as well.\" ^ Cite error: The named reference trove1947-11-30 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"1923–1948: Nationalism, immigration, and \"economic absorptive capacity\" \" . ^ Sabel, Robbie, ed. (2022), \"The 1947 Partition Plan\" , International Law and the Arab-Israeli Conflict , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 93– 101, doi : 10.1017/9781108762670.006 , ISBN 978-1-108-48684-2 , retrieved 31 October 2023 ^ Cite error: The named reference TEOP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sean F. McMahon, The Discourse of Palestinian-Israeli Relations , Routledge 2010 p. 40. \"The Zionist movement also accepted the UN partition plan of 1947 tactically. Palumbo notes that “[t]he Zionists accepted this scheme [the UN partition plan] since they hoped to use their state as a base to conquer the whole country.” Similarly, Flapan states that “[Zionist] acceptance of the resolution in no way diminished the belief of all the Zionist parties in their right to the whole of the country [Palestine]”; and that “acceptance of the UN Partition Resolution was an example of Zionist pragmatism par excellence. It was a tactical acceptance, a vital step in the right direction – a springboard for expansion when circumstances proved more judicious.” ^ Michael Palumbo (1990). Imperial Israel : the history of the occupation of the West Bank and Gaza . Bloomsbury. p. 19. ISBN 9780747504894 . The Zionists accepted this scheme [the UN partition plan] since they hoped to use their state as a base to conquer the whole country ^ Cite error: The named reference Baruch was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference myths was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Morris2008p75 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Eugene Rogan (2012). The Arabs: A History (3rd ed.). Penguin. p. 321. ISBN 978-0-7181-9683-7 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Morris2008p66 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Morris2008p73 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hadawi, Sami (1991). Bitter Harvest: A Modern History of Palestine . Olive Branch Press. ISBN 978-0-940793-76-7 . ^ Perkins, Kenneth J.; Gilbert, Martin (1999). \"Israel: A History\" . The Journal of Military History . 63 (3): 149. doi : 10.2307/120539 . ISSN 0899-3718 . JSTOR 120539 . ^ Best, Antony (2004), \"International History of the Twentieth Century and beyond\" , Routledge, p. 531, doi : 10.4324/9781315739717-1 , ISBN 978-1-315-73971-7 , retrieved 29 June 2022 {{ citation }} : Missing or empty |title= ( help ) ^ Rothrock, James (12 October 2021). Live by the Sword: Israel's Struggle for Existence in the Holy Land . Bloomington: WestBow Press. p. 14. ISBN 9781449725198 . ^ Lenczowski, G. (1962). The Middle East in World Affairs (3rd Edition). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 723 ^ Cite error: The named reference Galnoor1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Britannica2002 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Pappe, Ilan (2011). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine . Oneworld Publications Limited. p. 213. ISBN 9781780740560 .",
   "lead_after": "1947 plan to divide British Palestine \"Partition of Palestine\" redirects here. For the partition of Mandatory Palestine into Israel, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank, see 1949 Armistice Agreements . United Nations resolution adopted in 1947 The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a proposal developed by the United Nations for the future government of Mandatory Palestine following the termination of the British Mandate . Drafted by the UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) on 3 September 1947, the Plan was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 29 November 1947 as Resolution 181 (II) . The resolution recommended the partition of Mandatory Palestine into independent but economically linked Arab and Jewish states, together with an extraterritorial \" Special International Regime \" for the city of Jerusalem and its surroundings. The Partition Plan, a four-part document attached to the resolution, provided for the termination of the Mandate; the gradual withdrawal of British armed forces by no later than 1 August 1948; and the delineation of boundaries between the two states and Jerusalem at least two months after the withdrawal, but no later than 1 October 1948. The Arab state was to have a territory of 11,592 square kilometres (42.88% of the Mandate's territory), and the Jewish state a territory of 15,264 square kilometres (56.47%). The remaining 176 square kilometres (0.65%), comprising Jerusalem, Bethlehem and the adjoining area, would become an international zone . The Plan also called for an economic union between the proposed states and for the protection of religious and minority rights. The Plan sought to address the conflicting objectives and claims of two competing movements: Palestinian nationalism and Jewish nationalism in the form of Zionism . Jewish organizations collaborated with UNSCOP during the deliberations, while Palestinian Arab leadership boycotted it. The Plan's detractors considered the proposal to be pro-Zionist, as it allocated most land to the Jewish state despite Palestinian Arabs numbering twice the Jewish population. The Plan was celebrated by most Jews in Palestine and reluctantly accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine with misgivings. Zionist leaders, in particular David Ben-Gurion , viewed the acceptance of the plan as a tactical step and a steppingstone to future territorial expansion over all of Palestine . The Arab Higher Committee , the Arab League and other Arab leaders and governments rejected the Plan, as aside from Arabs forming a two-thirds majority, they owned most of the territory. They also indicated an unwillingness to accept any form of territorial division, arguing that it violated the principles of national self-determination in the UN Charter that granted people the right to decide their own destiny. They announced their intention to take all necessary measures to prevent the implementation of the resolution. The plan was not implemented and a civil war quickly broke out in Palestine, eventually becoming a larger regional war , and leading to the expulsion and flight of 85% of the Palestinians living in the areas that became the State of Israel . ^ \"A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947\" . United Nations General Assembly. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017 . Retrieved 4 January 2018 . ^ \"UN General Assembly Resolution 181 (II)\" (PDF) (in English and French). ^ Galina Nikitina , The State of Israel: A Historical, Economic and Political Study / By Galina Nikitina / 1973, Progress Publishers / p. 50. ^ Nikitana, Galina Stepanovna (1973). The State of Israel; a Historical Economic and Political Study . Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 56. ^ Asadi, Fawzi (1 October 1976). \"Some Geographic Elements in The Arab-Israeli Conflict\" . Journal of Palestine Studies . 6 (1): 79– 91. doi : 10.2307/2535720 . ISSN 0377-919X . JSTOR 2535720 . ^ Палестина / Л. А. Беляев, С. Б. Григорян, П. А. Рассадин (с 1939), М. Ю. Рощин // Большая российская энциклопедия : (в 35 т.) / гл. ред. Ю. С. Осипов. – М. : Большая российская энциклопедия, 2004–2017. ^ Cite error: The named reference undocs.org/A/364 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Quandt, William Baver; Quandt, William B.; Jabber, Fuad; Jabber, Paul; Lesch, Ann Mosely (1 January 1973). The Politics of Palestinian Nationalism . University of California Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-520-02372-7 . ^ Molinaro, Enrico (1 April 2009). Holy Places of Jerusalem in Middle East Peace Agreements: The Conflict Between Global and State Identities . Liverpool: Liverpool University Press . p. 78. ISBN 978-1845193355 . ^ Cite error: The named reference UN was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"BBC News\" . news.bbc.co.uk . Retrieved 23 October 2023 . ^ Ben-Dror 2007 , pp. 259–7260: \"The Arabs overwhelmingly rejected UNSCOP’s recommendations. The Arabs’ list of arguments against the majority’s conclusions was indeed a long one. A Palestinian historian summarized it by saying ‘Everything about it was Zionist’. When one takes into consideration the majority’s recommendations and the enthusiasm with which these recommendations were accepted by the Zionist leadership, then one can indeed affirm that claim. UNSCOP recommended an independent Jewish state, although the Arabs firmly objected to the principle of independence for the Jews, and did so in a way very generous to the Jews. More than half of the area of Palestine (62 percent) was allocated to be a Jewish state and the Arab state was supposed to make do with the remaining area, although the Palestinian Arab population numbered as much as twice the Jewish population in the land. The pro-Zionist results from UNSCOP confirmed the Arabs’ basic suspicions towards the committee. Even before the onset of its inquiry in Palestine, argued the Arabs, most of its members took a pro-Zionist stand. In addition, according to the Arabs, the committee’s final object – the partition – was pre-decided by the Americans. According to this opinion, the outcome of the UNSCOP inquiry was a foregone conclusion. This perception, which led the Palestinian Arabs to boycott the committee, is shared by some modern studies as well.\" ^ Cite error: The named reference trove1947-11-30 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"1923–1948: Nationalism, immigration, and \"economic absorptive capacity\" \" . ^ Sabel, Robbie, ed. (2022), \"The 1947 Partition Plan\" , International Law and the Arab-Israeli Conflict , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 93– 101, doi : 10.1017/9781108762670.006 , ISBN 978-1-108-48684-2 , retrieved 31 October 2023 ^ Cite error: The named reference TEOP was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Sean F. McMahon, The Discourse of Palestinian-Israeli Relations , Routledge 2010 p. 40. \"The Zionist movement also accepted the UN partition plan of 1947 tactically. Palumbo notes that “[t]he Zionists accepted this scheme [the UN partition plan] since they hoped to use their state as a base to conquer the whole country.” Similarly, Flapan states that “[Zionist] acceptance of the resolution in no way diminished the belief of all the Zionist parties in their right to the whole of the country [Palestine]”; and that “acceptance of the UN Partition Resolution was an example of Zionist pragmatism par excellence. It was a tactical acceptance, a vital step in the right direction – a springboard for expansion when circumstances proved more judicious.” ^ Michael Palumbo (1990). Imperial Israel : the history of the occupation of the West Bank and Gaza . Bloomsbury. p. 19. ISBN 9780747504894 . The Zionists accepted this scheme [the UN partition plan] since they hoped to use their state as a base to conquer the whole country ^ Cite error: The named reference Baruch was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference myths was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Morris2008p75 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Eugene Rogan (2012). The Arabs: A History (3rd ed.). Penguin. p. 321. ISBN 978-0-7181-9683-7 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Morris2008p66 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Morris2008p73 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hadawi, Sami (1991). Bitter Harvest: A Modern History of Palestine . Olive Branch Press. ISBN 978-0-940793-76-7 . ^ Perkins, Kenneth J.; Gilbert, Martin (1999). \"Israel: A History\" . The Journal of Military History . 63 (3): 149. doi : 10.2307/120539 . ISSN 0899-3718 . JSTOR 120539 . ^ Best, Antony (2004), \"International History of the Twentieth Century and beyond\" , Routledge, p. 531, doi : 10.4324/9781315739717-1 , ISBN 978-1-315-73971-7 , retrieved 29 June 2022 {{ citation }} : Missing or empty |title= ( help ) ^ Rothrock, James (12 October 2021). Live by the Sword: Israel's Struggle for Existence in the Holy Land . Bloomington: WestBow Press. p. 14. ISBN 9781449725198 . ^ Lenczowski, G. (1962). The Middle East in World Affairs (3rd Edition). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 723 ^ Cite error: The named reference Galnoor1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Britannica2002 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Pappe, Ilan (2011). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine . Oneworld Publications Limited. p. 213. ISBN 9781780740560 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Jewish deicide",
   "pageid": 16949721,
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   "lead_before": "Belief that Jews bear collective responsibility for the crucifixion of Jesus Jewish deicide is the theological position and the antisemitic trope that as a people, the Jews are collectively responsible for the killing of Jesus , even through the successive generations following his death. The notion arose in early Christianity , and it features in the writings of Justin Martyr and Melito of Sardis as early as the 2nd century. The Biblical passage Matthew 27:24–25 has been seen as giving voice to the charge of Jewish deicide as well. The accusation that the Jews were Christ-killers fed Christian antisemitism and spurred on acts of violence against Jews such as pogroms , massacres of Jews during the Crusades , expulsions of the Jews from England , France , Spain , Portugal and other places, and torture during the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions . In the catechism that was produced by the Council of Trent in the mid-16th century, the Catholic Church rejected the deicide charge and taught the belief that the collectivity of sinful humanity was responsible for the death of Jesus, with Christians having a special responsibility themselves. In the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), the Catholic Church under Pope Paul VI issued the declaration Nostra aetate that repudiated the idea of a collective, multigenerational Jewish guilt for the crucifixion of Jesus. It declared that the accusation could not be made \"against all the Jews, without distinction, then alive, nor against the Jews of today\". Most Protestant churches have never given a binding position on the matter; but some Christian denominations , such as the Episcopal Church in the US, the Presbyterian Church (USA) , and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America have issued official declarations against the accusation. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference nostra was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Greenspoon, Leonard; Hamm, Dennis; Le Beau, Bryan F. (1 November 2000). The Historical Jesus Through Catholic and Jewish Eyes . A&C Black. p. 78. ISBN 978-1-56338-322-9 . ^ Kiewe, Amos (20 November 2018). \"Antisemitism and Communication\" . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication . doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.633 . ISBN 978-0-19-022861-3 . The Church correctly identified the charge of eternal guilt of the Jew as the root cause of antisemitism and stated its rejection of the faulty reasoning associated with the charge of eternal deicide. ^ Feldman, Louis Harry (1996-01-01). Studies in Hellenistic Judaism . Brill. p. 309. doi : 10.1163/9789004332836 . ISBN 978-90-04-33283-6 . ^ Rainer Kampling, \"Deicide\", in Richard S. Levy, ed. (2005), Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution, Vol. 1, ABC-CLIO , ISBN 978-1-851-09439-4 pp. 168–169 ^ Cite error: The named reference Rosenthal was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Williamson was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Deicide and the Jews\" . ^ Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (November 16, 1998). \"Guidelines for Lutheran–Jewish Relations\" . ^ World Council of Churches (July 1999). \"Guidelines for Lutheran–Jewish Relations\" Archived 2021-02-24 at the Wayback Machine . In Current Dialogue Archived 2021-02-27 at the Wayback Machine , Issue 33.",
   "lead_after": "Belief that Jews bear collective responsibility for the crucifixion of Jesus Jewish deicide is the theological position and the antisemitic trope that as a people, the Jews are collectively responsible for the killing of Jesus , even through the successive generations following his death. The notion arose in early Christianity , and it features in the writings of Justin Martyr and Melito of Sardis as early as the 2nd century. The Biblical passage Matthew 27:24–25 has been seen as giving voice to the charge of Jewish deicide as well. The accusation that the Jews were Christ-killers fed Christian antisemitism and spurred on acts of violence against Jews such as pogroms , massacres of Jews during the Crusades , expulsions of the Jews from England , France , Spain , Portugal and other places, and torture during the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions . In the catechism that was produced by the Council of Trent in the mid-16th century, the Catholic Church rejected the deicide charge and taught the belief that the collectivity of sinful humanity was responsible for the death of Jesus, with Christians having a special responsibility themselves. In the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), the Catholic Church under Pope Paul VI issued the declaration Nostra aetate that repudiated the idea of a collective, multigenerational Jewish guilt for the crucifixion of Jesus. It declared that the accusation could not be made \"against all the Jews, without distinction, then alive, nor against the Jews of today\". Most Protestant churches have never given a binding position on the matter; but some Christian denominations , such as the Episcopal Church in the US, the Presbyterian Church (USA) , and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America have issued official declarations against the accusation. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference nostra was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Greenspoon, Leonard; Hamm, Dennis; Le Beau, Bryan F. (1 November 2000). The Historical Jesus Through Catholic and Jewish Eyes . A&C Black. p. 78. ISBN 978-1-56338-322-9 . ^ Kiewe, Amos (20 November 2018). \"Antisemitism and Communication\" . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication . doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.633 . ISBN 978-0-19-022861-3 . The Church correctly identified the charge of eternal guilt of the Jew as the root cause of antisemitism and stated its rejection of the faulty reasoning associated with the charge of eternal deicide. ^ Feldman, Louis Harry (1996-01-01). Studies in Hellenistic Judaism . Brill. p. 309. doi : 10.1163/9789004332836 . ISBN 978-90-04-33283-6 . ^ Rainer Kampling, \"Deicide\", in Richard S. Levy, ed. (2005), Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution, Vol. 1, ABC-CLIO , ISBN 978-1-851-09439-4 pp. 168–169 ^ Cite error: The named reference Rosenthal was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Williamson was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Deicide and the Jews\" . ^ Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (November 16, 1998). \"Guidelines for Lutheran–Jewish Relations\" . ^ World Council of Churches (July 1999). \"Guidelines for Lutheran–Jewish Relations\" Archived 2021-02-24 at the Wayback Machine . In Current Dialogue Archived 2021-02-27 at the Wayback Machine , Issue 33."
  },
  {
   "title": "Livingstone Formulation",
   "pageid": 75762748,
   "revid_before": 1359864454,
   "revid_after": 1365726721,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-24T02:27:54Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Livingstone_Formulation&oldid=1359864454",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Livingstone_Formulation&oldid=1365726721",
   "lead_before": "Responding to antisemitism with a claim of bad faith The Livingstone Formulation is the manner of responding to an accusation of antisemitism with the counter-claim that the complainant is weaponizing antisemitism to suppress criticism of Israel . The term was invented by British sociologist David Hirsh after an incident involving former London mayor Ken Livingstone . The Livingstone Formulation has been described as a common retort to allegations of antisemitism, particularly on the political left , and has been criticized as dishonest and propagating antisemitic stereotypes about Jewish power and deceit. ^ Hirsh, David (2010). \"Accusations of malicious intent in debates about the Palestine-Israel conflict and about antisemitism: The Livingstone Formulation, 'playing the antisemitism card' and contesting the boundaries of antiracist discourse\" . Transversal . 11 : 44– 77 . Retrieved 1 January 2024 . ^ Schraub, David (2016). \"Playing with Cards: Discrimination Claims and the Charge of Bad Faith\" . Social Theory and Practice . 42 (2): 285– 303. doi : 10.5840/soctheorpract201642216 . ISSN 0037-802X . JSTOR 24871344 .",
   "lead_after": "Responding to antisemitism with a claim of bad faith The Livingstone Formulation is the manner of responding to an accusation of antisemitism with the counter-claim that the complainant is weaponizing antisemitism to suppress criticism of Israel . The term was invented by British sociologist David Hirsh after an incident involving former London mayor Ken Livingstone . The Livingstone Formulation has been described as a common retort to allegations of antisemitism, particularly on the political left , and has been criticized as dishonest and propagating antisemitic stereotypes about Jewish power and deceit. ^ Hirsh, David (2010). \"Accusations of malicious intent in debates about the Palestine-Israel conflict and about antisemitism: The Livingstone Formulation, 'playing the antisemitism card' and contesting the boundaries of antiracist discourse\" . Transversal . 11 : 44– 77 . Retrieved 1 January 2024 . ^ Schraub, David (2016). \"Playing with Cards: Discrimination Claims and the Charge of Bad Faith\" . Social Theory and Practice . 42 (2): 285– 303. doi : 10.5840/soctheorpract201642216 . ISSN 0037-802X . JSTOR 24871344 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Constitution of Medina",
   "pageid": 633927,
   "revid_before": 1349001847,
   "revid_after": 1364025574,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-14T01:32:49Z",
   "lead_changed": false,
   "terms_delta": {},
   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Medina&oldid=1349001847",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Medina&oldid=1364025574",
   "lead_before": "Proclamation by Muhammad to end intertribal fighting Life Mecca Hijrah First Islamic state After Conquest of Mecca Farewell Pilgrimage ( Farewell Sermon ) Hadith Milestones and records Career Military Diplomatic Miracles Quran ( First revelation ) Isra and Mi'raj Splitting of the Moon Views and Perspectives Views Jews Christians Perspectives Islam Bible Judaism Medieval Christian Historicity Criticism Succession Saqifah Ghadir Khumm Companions of Muhammad Hadith of the pen and paper Ahl al-Bayt Praise Salawat Naat Mawlid Related Mohammedan Mahound Al-Masjid an-Nabawi Possessions Relics Seal History of Islam Islam portal Biography portal v t e The Mithaq al-Madina or the Constitution of Medina or the Charter of Medina ( Arabic : وثيقة المدينة , romanized : Waṯīqat al-Madīna ; or صحیفة المدينة , Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna ; also known as the \"Umma Document\"), is a constitution that governed the affairs of Medina which formed the basis of the First Islamic State , a multi-religious polity under the Prophet Muhammad's leadership. Composed of approximately 47 clauses, the constitution established a legal , economic and political framework for the diverse communities living in Medina, declaring all citizens as one community. According to Robert Bertram Serjeant , the Constitution of Medina consisted of eight distinct documents, issued on several occasions over the first seven years or so of Muhammad's Medinan period. Many of the texts were recorded by Ibn Ishaq and Abu 'Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam , though how they encountered the text is unclear. Although it does not fulfill any of the conditions of authenticity in the Islamic recording system (such as having a reliable chain of narrators up to the person who recorded it), it is widely accepted as authentic. It may have been preserved due to interest in its manner of administration. Many tribal groups are mentioned, including the Banu Najjar and Quraysh , as well as many tribal institutions, like vengeance, blood money , ransom , alliance, and clientage , and has striking resemblances with Surah 5 (Al-Ma'idah) of the Quran . ^ Donner 2010 , p. 227. ^ John Burton, Those are the High-flying Cranes , Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol 15 No. 2, pp. 265 ^ Tarif Khalidi, Arab Historical Thought in The Classical Period , Cambridge University Press, pp. 48 ^ Al-Dawoody, Ahmed (2011). The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 19. ISBN 9780230111608 . ^ Rubin 2022 , p. 8. ^ Lewis, Bernard. \"The Arabs in History\" . p. 42 . Retrieved 24 November 2023 . . ^ Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). \"What do we actually know about Mohammed?\" . Open Democracy . Retrieved 22 November 2023 . sources dating from the mid-8th century onwards preserve a document drawn up between Mohammed and the inhabitants of Yathrib, which there are good reasons to accept as broadly authentic ^ Serjeant, R. B. (1978). \"The \"Sunnah Jāmi'ah,\" Pacts with the Yaṯẖrib Jews, and the \"Taḥrīm\" of Yaṯẖrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the So-Called 'Constitution of Medina' \" . Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London . 41 (1): 1– 4. doi : 10.1017/S0041977X00057761 . JSTOR 615621 . Retrieved 23 November 2023 . ^ Humphreys 1991 , p. 92. ^ Watt 1956 , p. 221. ^ Donner 1998 , p. 209. ^ Cook 2024 , p. 69. ^ Goudarzi 2024 , p. 62–64.",
   "lead_after": "Proclamation by Muhammad to end intertribal fighting Life Mecca Hijrah First Islamic state After Conquest of Mecca Farewell Pilgrimage ( Farewell Sermon ) Hadith Milestones and records Career Military Diplomatic Miracles Quran ( First revelation ) Isra and Mi'raj Splitting of the Moon Views and Perspectives Views Jews Christians Perspectives Islam Bible Judaism Medieval Christian Historicity Criticism Succession Saqifah Ghadir Khumm Companions of Muhammad Hadith of the pen and paper Ahl al-Bayt Praise Salawat Naat Mawlid Related Mohammedan Mahound Al-Masjid an-Nabawi Possessions Relics Seal History of Islam Islam portal Biography portal v t e The Mithaq al-Madina or the Constitution of Medina or the Charter of Medina ( Arabic : وثيقة المدينة , romanized : Waṯīqat al-Madīna ; or صحیفة المدينة , Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna ; also known as the \"Umma Document\"), is a constitution that governed the affairs of Medina which formed the basis of the First Islamic State , a multi-religious polity under the Prophet Muhammad's leadership. Composed of approximately 47 clauses, the constitution established a legal , economic and political framework for the diverse communities living in Medina, declaring all citizens as one community. According to Robert Bertram Serjeant , the Constitution of Medina consisted of eight distinct documents, issued on several occasions over the first seven years or so of Muhammad's Medinan period. Many of the texts were recorded by Ibn Ishaq and Abu 'Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam , though how they encountered the text is unclear. Although it does not fulfill any of the conditions of authenticity in the Islamic recording system (such as having a reliable chain of narrators up to the person who recorded it), it is widely accepted as authentic. It may have been preserved due to interest in its manner of administration. Many tribal groups are mentioned, including the Banu Najjar and Quraysh , as well as many tribal institutions, like vengeance, blood money , ransom , alliance, and clientage , and has striking resemblances with Surah 5 (Al-Ma'idah) of the Quran . ^ Donner 2010 , p. 227. ^ John Burton, Those are the High-flying Cranes , Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol 15 No. 2, pp. 265 ^ Tarif Khalidi, Arab Historical Thought in The Classical Period , Cambridge University Press, pp. 48 ^ Al-Dawoody, Ahmed (2011). The Islamic Law of War: Justifications and Regulations . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 19. ISBN 9780230111608 . ^ Rubin 2022 , p. 8. ^ Lewis, Bernard. \"The Arabs in History\" . p. 42 . Retrieved 24 November 2023 . . ^ Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). \"What do we actually know about Mohammed?\" . Open Democracy . Retrieved 22 November 2023 . sources dating from the mid-8th century onwards preserve a document drawn up between Mohammed and the inhabitants of Yathrib, which there are good reasons to accept as broadly authentic ^ Serjeant, R. B. (1978). \"The \"Sunnah Jāmi'ah,\" Pacts with the Yaṯẖrib Jews, and the \"Taḥrīm\" of Yaṯẖrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the So-Called 'Constitution of Medina' \" . Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London . 41 (1): 1– 4. doi : 10.1017/S0041977X00057761 . JSTOR 615621 . Retrieved 23 November 2023 . ^ Humphreys 1991 , p. 92. ^ Watt 1956 , p. 221. ^ Donner 1998 , p. 209. ^ Cook 2024 , p. 69. ^ Goudarzi 2024 , p. 62–64."
  },
  {
   "title": "George Soros conspiracy theories",
   "pageid": 61639424,
   "revid_before": 1361793725,
   "revid_after": 1364129035,
   "edited_at": "2026-07-14T17:56:32Z",
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Soros_conspiracy_theories&oldid=1361793725",
   "url_after": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Soros_conspiracy_theories&oldid=1364129035",
   "lead_before": "Theories on Hungarian-American investor George Soros , Hungarian-born American businessman, is the subject of numerous conspiracy theories. Hungarian-American billionaire businessman George Soros is the subject of numerous antisemitic conspiracy theories . Veronika Bondarenko, writing for Business Insider in 2017, said: \"For two decades, some have seen Soros as a kind of puppet master secretly controlling the global economy and politics.\" The New York Times describes the allegations as moving \"from the dark corners of the internet and talk radio\" to \"the very center of the political debate\" by 2018. Professor Armin Langer has noted that Soros is \"the perfect code word \" for conspiracy theories that unite antisemitism and Islamophobia . Soros conspiracies first emerged in Russian circles involving \"Western anti- Kremlin civil society across the Eastern Bloc from Tbilisi to the Baltic \". These conspiracies involved inverting Soros's strengths into weaknesses, a common Russian disinformation technique. Soros, a Holocaust survivor, was falsely accused of being a Nazi collaborator. As a supporter of Eastern European democracies, Soros was accused of being behind the European migrant crisis or importing migrants to European countries. Due to his anti-corruption advocacy, he was also accused of \"globalist\" conspiracies to overthrow governments. The Soros conspiracies quickly spread across Europe and the United States, carrying antisemitic and Islamophobic overtones. This included efforts by the Hungarian government, under the second premiership of Viktor Orbán , as part of an election campaign demonizing Soros. Soros is cast as part of an international cabal of Jews that includes the Rothschilds , Freemasons , and Illuminati . American conservatives picked up on the thread in the late 2000s, spearheaded by Fox News . Bill O'Reilly gave an almost ten-minute monologue on Soros in 2007, calling him an \"extremist\" and claiming he was \"off-the-charts dangerous.\" Online news organizations, often connected to Russian state media such as the Centre for Research on Globalization , would also publish and help spread conspiracies. ^ Soskis, Benjamin (December 5, 2017). \"George Soros and the Demonization of Philanthropy\" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on February 20, 2018 . Retrieved February 26, 2018 . ^ Rachman, Gideon (September 18, 2017). \"Soros hatred is a global sickness\" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on February 27, 2018 . Retrieved March 4, 2018 . ^ Langer, Armin (April 2, 2021). \"The eternal George Soros\". Europe: Continent of Conspiracies . Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 163– 184. doi : 10.4324/9781003048640-9 . ISBN 978-1-003-04864-0 . ^ Kalmar, Ivan (2020). \"Islamophobia and anti-antisemitism: the case of Hungary and the 'Soros plot' \". Patterns of Prejudice . 54 ( 1– 2): 182– 198. doi : 10.1080/0031322X.2019.1705014 . S2CID 219021241 . ^ Bondarenko, Veronika (May 20, 2017). \"George Soros is a favorite target of the right – here's how that happened\" . Business Insider ƒ . Archived from the original on February 27, 2018 . Retrieved March 3, 2018 . ^ Shane, Scott; Vogel, Kenneth P.; Kingsley, Patrick (October 31, 2018). \"How Vilification of George Soros Moved From the Fringes to the Mainstream\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 1, 2018 . Retrieved November 1, 2018 . ^ Kaylan, Melik. \"Why Populists Hate George Soros And How It Started\" . Forbes . Archived from the original on October 20, 2022 . Retrieved August 29, 2025 . ^ Bechis, Francesco (December 29, 2020). \"Playing the Russian Disinformation Game\". Democracy and Fake News . London: Routledge. pp. 119– 131. doi : 10.4324/9781003037385-12 . ISBN 978-1-003-03738-5 . ^ Backhouse, Sarah; Newton, Clare (December 8, 2019). Freeman-Greene, Suzy; Beaumont, Lucy; Howard, Jane (eds.). \"State Library Victoria proves libraries aren't just about books: they're about community\". The Conversation . doi : 10.64628/aa.fqkjva4nh . ^ Brown, Jennings; Steinblatt, Jacob (March 30, 2017). \"How George Soros Became The Right's Biggest Boogeyman\" . www.vocativ.com . Vocativ . Archived from the original on February 23, 2018 . Retrieved March 3, 2018 . ^ Langer, Armin (August 8, 2022). \"8 Dog-Whistle Politics as a Strategy of American Nationalists and Populists: George Soros, the Rothschilds, and Other Conspiracy Theories\". Nationalism and Populism . De Gruyter. pp. 157– 188. doi : 10.1515/9783110729740-008 . ISBN 978-3-11-072974-0 .",
   "lead_after": "Theories on Hungarian-American investor George Soros , Hungarian-born American businessman, is the subject of numerous conspiracy theories. Hungarian-American billionaire businessman George Soros is the subject of numerous antisemitic conspiracy theories . Veronika Bondarenko, writing for Business Insider in 2017, said: \"For two decades, some have seen Soros as a kind of puppet master secretly controlling the global economy and politics.\" The New York Times describes the allegations as moving \"from the dark corners of the internet and talk radio\" to \"the very center of the political debate\" by 2018. Professor Armin Langer has noted that Soros is \"the perfect code word \" for conspiracy theories that unite antisemitism and Islamophobia . Soros conspiracies first emerged in Russian circles involving \"Western anti- Kremlin civil society across the Eastern Bloc from Tbilisi to the Baltic \". These conspiracies involved inverting Soros's strengths into weaknesses, a common Russian disinformation technique. Soros, a Holocaust survivor, was falsely accused of being a Nazi collaborator. As a supporter of Eastern European democracies, Soros was accused of being behind the European migrant crisis or importing migrants to European countries. Due to his anti-corruption advocacy, he was also accused of \"globalist\" conspiracies to overthrow governments. The Soros conspiracies quickly spread across Europe and the United States, carrying antisemitic and Islamophobic overtones. This included efforts by the Hungarian government, under the second premiership of Viktor Orbán , as part of an election campaign demonizing Soros. Soros is cast as part of an international cabal of Jews that includes the Rothschilds , Freemasons , and Illuminati . American conservatives picked up on the thread in the late 2000s, spearheaded by Fox News . Bill O'Reilly gave an almost ten-minute monologue on Soros in 2007, calling him an \"extremist\" and claiming he was \"off-the-charts dangerous.\" Online news organizations, often connected to Russian state media such as the Centre for Research on Globalization , would also publish and help spread conspiracies. ^ Soskis, Benjamin (December 5, 2017). \"George Soros and the Demonization of Philanthropy\" . The Atlantic . Archived from the original on February 20, 2018 . Retrieved February 26, 2018 . ^ Rachman, Gideon (September 18, 2017). \"Soros hatred is a global sickness\" . Financial Times . Archived from the original on February 27, 2018 . Retrieved March 4, 2018 . ^ Langer, Armin (April 2, 2021). \"The eternal George Soros\". Europe: Continent of Conspiracies . Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 163– 184. doi : 10.4324/9781003048640-9 . ISBN 978-1-003-04864-0 . ^ Kalmar, Ivan (2020). \"Islamophobia and anti-antisemitism: the case of Hungary and the 'Soros plot' \". Patterns of Prejudice . 54 ( 1– 2): 182– 198. doi : 10.1080/0031322X.2019.1705014 . S2CID 219021241 . ^ Bondarenko, Veronika (May 20, 2017). \"George Soros is a favorite target of the right – here's how that happened\" . Business Insider ƒ . Archived from the original on February 27, 2018 . Retrieved March 3, 2018 . ^ Shane, Scott; Vogel, Kenneth P.; Kingsley, Patrick (October 31, 2018). \"How Vilification of George Soros Moved From the Fringes to the Mainstream\" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on November 1, 2018 . Retrieved November 1, 2018 . ^ Kaylan, Melik. \"Why Populists Hate George Soros And How It Started\" . Forbes . Archived from the original on October 20, 2022 . Retrieved August 29, 2025 . ^ Bechis, Francesco (December 29, 2020). \"Playing the Russian Disinformation Game\". Democracy and Fake News . London: Routledge. pp. 119– 131. doi : 10.4324/9781003037385-12 . ISBN 978-1-003-03738-5 . ^ Backhouse, Sarah; Newton, Clare (December 8, 2019). Freeman-Greene, Suzy; Beaumont, Lucy; Howard, Jane (eds.). \"State Library Victoria proves libraries aren't just about books: they're about community\". The Conversation . doi : 10.64628/aa.fqkjva4nh . ^ Brown, Jennings; Steinblatt, Jacob (March 30, 2017). \"How George Soros Became The Right's Biggest Boogeyman\" . www.vocativ.com . Vocativ . Archived from the original on February 23, 2018 . Retrieved March 3, 2018 . ^ Langer, Armin (August 8, 2022). \"8 Dog-Whistle Politics as a Strategy of American Nationalists and Populists: George Soros, the Rothschilds, and Other Conspiracy Theories\". Nationalism and Populism . De Gruyter. pp. 157– 188. doi : 10.1515/9783110729740-008 . ISBN 978-3-11-072974-0 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Israeli-occupied territories",
   "pageid": 2781576,
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   "url_before": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Israeli-occupied_territories&oldid=1359135767",
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   "lead_before": "Map showing the status of Israel and the Israeli-occupied territories as of 2018 Israel has occupied the Palestinian territories and the Golan Heights of Syria since the Six-Day War of 1967. It has previously occupied the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt and southern Lebanon as well. Prior to 1967, control of the Palestinian territories was split between Egypt and Jordan , which administered the Gaza Strip and the West Bank , respectively. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories and the Golan Heights , where Israel has transferred parts of its population and built large settlements , is the longest military occupation in modern history . From 1967 to 1981, the four areas were administered under the Israeli Military Governorate , and after the return of the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty , Israel effectively annexed the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem in 1980, and brought the rest of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip under the Israeli Civil Administration . In 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip , but the International Court of Justice , the UN General Assembly , and the UN Security Council continue to consider Israel as the occupying power there due to its blockade of the territory . In 2024, the ICJ ruled in an advisory opinion that Israel's occupation was illegal and called for Israel to end its \"unlawful presence ... as rapidly as possible\" and to make reparations to the people of the occupied territories. The Supreme Court of Israel has ruled that Israel is holding the West Bank under \"belligerent occupation\" . However, successive Israeli governments have preferred the term \"disputed territories\" in the case of the West Bank, and Israel likewise maintains that the West Bank is disputed territory. In January 2024, following the Hamas attacks on Israel on October 7 , Israel reoccupied most of the northern Gaza Strip, leading to further clashes. Negotiations ultimately failed, with both sides accusing each other of breaking the planned ceasefire, and the conflict pursued. ^ \"The situation in the occupied Arab territories\" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-27 . Retrieved 2018-08-27 . ^ Cite error: The named reference International Court of Justice was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference http://unispal.un.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"SPOKESPERSON's DAILY HIGHLIGHTS\" . United Nations . Archived from the original on 8 May 2012 . Retrieved 29 April 2012 . ^ Cite error: The named reference AI_briefing was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference isrlpa13698 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference cnn2009-01-06 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Israel: 'Disengagement' Will Not End Gaza Occupation\" . Human Rights Watch. 2004-10-29. Archived from the original on 2015-04-15 . Retrieved 11 May 2012 . ^ Strongly deplores the continued refusal of Israel, the occupying Power, to comply with the relevant resolutions of the Security Council and the General Assembly; Ruth Lapidoth; Moshe Hirsch (1994). The Jerusalem Question and Its Resolution: Selected Documents . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 351–. ISBN 978-0-7923-2893-3 . Retrieved 15 January 2012 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Maupas was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Jacob was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Beit Sourik Village Council v. The Government of Israel Archived 2022-09-13 at the Wayback Machine . (PDF) . Retrieved on April 4, 2017. ^ Zarchin, Tomer (July 9, 2012). \"Legal Expert: If Israel Isn't Occupying West Bank, It Must Give Up Land Held by IDF\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on October 10, 2017 . Retrieved March 12, 2017 . 'If the Levy Committee is pushing the government to determine that Israel's presence in the West Bank does not violate international law, Israel is in a dangerous position facing the rest of the world,' said Sasson this morning to Haaretz . ... 'For 45 years, different compositions of the High Court of Justice stated again and again that international law applies to the West Bank, which is clearly opposed to Levy's findings. This is a colossal turnaround, which I do not think is within his authority. He can tell the government that he recommends changing legal status, and that's all,' said Sasson. ^ FAQ: The Peace process with the Palestinians – Dec 2009 Archived 2022-05-17 at the Wayback Machine . Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved on 2012-01-15. ^ From \"Occupied Territories\" to \"Disputed Territories,\" by Dore Gold Archived 2011-07-09 at the Wayback Machine . Jcpa.org. Retrieved on 2012-01-15. ^ \"Israel, the Conflict and Peace: Answers to frequently asked questions\" . Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2009-12-30. Archived from the original on 2015-02-19 . Retrieved 2015-01-24 .",
   "lead_after": "Overview of territories occupied by Israel Map showing the status of Israel and the Israeli-occupied territories as of 2018 Israel has occupied the Palestinian territories and the Golan Heights of Syria since the Six-Day War of 1967. It has previously occupied the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt and southern Lebanon as well. Prior to 1967, control of the Palestinian territories was split between Egypt and Jordan , which administered the Gaza Strip and the West Bank , respectively. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories and the Golan Heights , where Israel has transferred parts of its population and built large settlements , is the longest military occupation in modern history . From 1967 to 1981, the four areas were administered under the Israeli Military Governorate , and after the return of the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty , Israel effectively annexed the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem in 1980, and brought the rest of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip under the Israeli Civil Administration . In 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip , but the International Court of Justice , the UN General Assembly , and the UN Security Council continue to consider Israel as the occupying power there due to its blockade of the territory . In 2024, the ICJ ruled in an advisory opinion that Israel's occupation was illegal and called for Israel to end its \"unlawful presence ... as rapidly as possible\" and to make reparations to the people of the occupied territories. The Supreme Court of Israel has ruled that Israel is holding the West Bank under \"belligerent occupation\" . However, successive Israeli governments have preferred the term \"disputed territories\" in the case of the West Bank, and Israel likewise maintains that the West Bank is disputed territory. Between 2023 and 2026, Israel expanded its occupation in the Gaza Strip, Lebanon, and Syria by a combined 1000 square kilometers, as calculated by the Associated Press. In January 2024, following the Hamas attacks on Israel on October 7 , Israel reoccupied most of the northern Gaza Strip, leading to further clashes. After a shifting presence of military ground forces during the war, the October 2025 comprehensive agreement established a yellow demarcation line that left the Israeli military in control of 53% of the Gaza Strip. Israel has since shifted this line so that its military controls 70% of the strip. The Israeli military invaded Lebanon during the 2024 war and retained a military presence at five Israeli military outposts in Lebanon afterwards, pledging in April 2025 to remain there. In March and April 2026, Israel began an expanded military occupation within southern Lebanon , reaching a total of 570–608 square kilometers (220–234 sq mi) by the 2026 Israel–Lebanon temporary ceasefire . In December 2024, Israel occupied the UN buffer zone established to the east of the already occupied Golan Heights in Syria. The United Nations calculates this area at 235 square kilometers (91 square miles). ^ \"The situation in the occupied Arab territories\" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-27 . Retrieved 2018-08-27 . ^ Cite error: The named reference International Court of Justice was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference http://unispal.un.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"SPOKESPERSON's DAILY HIGHLIGHTS\" . United Nations . Archived from the original on 8 May 2012 . Retrieved 29 April 2012 . ^ Cite error: The named reference AI_briefing was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference isrlpa13698 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference cnn2009-01-06 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ \"Israel: 'Disengagement' Will Not End Gaza Occupation\" . Human Rights Watch. 2004-10-29. Archived from the original on 2015-04-15 . Retrieved 11 May 2012 . ^ Strongly deplores the continued refusal of Israel, the occupying Power, to comply with the relevant resolutions of the Security Council and the General Assembly; Ruth Lapidoth; Moshe Hirsch (1994). The Jerusalem Question and Its Resolution: Selected Documents . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 351–. ISBN 978-0-7923-2893-3 . Retrieved 15 January 2012 . ^ Cite error: The named reference Maupas was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Jacob was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Beit Sourik Village Council v. The Government of Israel Archived 2022-09-13 at the Wayback Machine . (PDF) . Retrieved on April 4, 2017. ^ Zarchin, Tomer (July 9, 2012). \"Legal Expert: If Israel Isn't Occupying West Bank, It Must Give Up Land Held by IDF\" . Haaretz . Archived from the original on October 10, 2017 . Retrieved March 12, 2017 . 'If the Levy Committee is pushing the government to determine that Israel's presence in the West Bank does not violate international law, Israel is in a dangerous position facing the rest of the world,' said Sasson this morning to Haaretz . ... 'For 45 years, different compositions of the High Court of Justice stated again and again that international law applies to the West Bank, which is clearly opposed to Levy's findings. This is a colossal turnaround, which I do not think is within his authority. He can tell the government that he recommends changing legal status, and that's all,' said Sasson. ^ FAQ: The Peace process with the Palestinians – Dec 2009 Archived 2022-05-17 at the Wayback Machine . Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved on 2012-01-15. ^ From \"Occupied Territories\" to \"Disputed Territories,\" by Dore Gold Archived 2011-07-09 at the Wayback Machine . Jcpa.org. Retrieved on 2012-01-15. ^ \"Israel, the Conflict and Peace: Answers to frequently asked questions\" . Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2009-12-30. Archived from the original on 2015-02-19 . Retrieved 2015-01-24 . ^ Lidman, Melanie; Jarrett, Will (2026-06-18). \"Israel seized more land from neighbors since 2023 than it has in decades\" . AP News . Retrieved 2026-07-17 . ^ Halbfinger, David M. (2025-10-24). \"A Quick Route to Rebuild Half of Gaza, or Another U.S. Pipe Dream?\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2026-07-17 . ^ Baba, Anas; Batrawy, Aya (2026-07-10). \"9 months into a ceasefire, Israel now controls nearly 70% of Gaza\" . NPR . Retrieved 2026-07-17 . ^ Khraiche, Dana (18 February 2025). \"Lebanese Media Confirms Israel Troops Remain in Five Outposts\" . Bloomberg . Retrieved 18 February 2025 . ^ \"Israel says troops to remain indefinitely in Gaza, Lebanon and Syria\" . Agence France-Presse . 17 April 2025 . Retrieved 20 May 2025 . ^ Dziadosz, Alexander; Osseiran, Nazih; Cartier, Catherine (May 28, 2026). \"How Israel has emptied southern Lebanon far beyond the front lines\" . Reuters . ^ \"Israel's occupation of Gaza, Lebanon, Syria extends beyond what maps show\" . Al Jazeera . 26 May 2026 . Retrieved 2026-05-29 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Nick Fuentes",
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   "lead_before": "American far-right political activist (born 1998) \"Nicholas Fuentes\" redirects here. For the Peruvian footballer, see Nicolás Fuentes . Not to be confused with Nick Freitas . Nicholas Joseph Fuentes (born August 18, 1998) is an American far-right political commentator , live streamer , and influencer . He hosts the livestreamed show America First , where he has advanced white nationalism and white supremacy , Christian nationalism , the incel subculture, misogyny , anti-LGBTQ views, and antisemitism including Holocaust denial . His supporters are known as \" Groypers \". Fuentes was raised in La Grange Park, Illinois , and held mainstream conservative views while in high school. He became active in politics after graduating in 2016, voiced support for Donald Trump , and launched America First in 2017. He attended the 2017 Unite the Right rally . In 2019, his followers confronted speakers at Turning Point USA events in what became known as the \" Groyper War \". In 2020, he founded the America First Political Action Conference (AFPAC), described as a white nationalist alternative to CPAC , which has since been discontinued. Fuentes later appeared at events preceding the January 6 United States Capitol attack . He drew further attention in 2022 after attending a private dinner at Mar-a-Lago with Donald Trump and Kanye West . In 2024, he initiated a second \"Groyper War\" targeting Trump's 2024 presidential campaign . Between 2020 and 2023, Fuentes was removed from numerous social media, streaming, and financial platforms for violating hate-speech policies and for his involvement in events surrounding January 6. ^ Reilly, Katie (August 17, 2017). \"Boston University Student Quits After Charlottesville Rally\" . TIME . Retrieved April 24, 2026 . ^ \"Deposition of Nicholas J. Fuentes\" (PDF) . GovInfo . U.S. Government Publishing Office. February 16, 2022 . Retrieved April 24, 2026 . ^ America First Ep. 1575 . Rumble (Video). October 1, 2025. Event occurs at 2:02:10 . Retrieved October 2, 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference white-nationalist was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference white-supremacist was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Owen, Tess (June 7, 2022). \"They Love Jesus, Bon Iver, and Incels. Inside America's New Ultranationalist Youth Movement\" . Vice.com . Retrieved October 15, 2022 . ^ Multiple sources: \"Kanye West Twitter ban: A timeline of the rapper's downfall\" . BBC News . December 2, 2022. far-right political commentator Nick Fuentes Ankel, Sophia (January 20, 2022). \"Jan. 6 panel subpoenas 2 far-right activists said to have received $275,000 worth of bitcoin from French computer programmer before riot\" . Business Insider . Haberman, Maggie; Feuer, Alan (November 25, 2022). \"Trump's Latest Dinner Guest: Nick Fuentes, White Supremacist\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved November 26, 2022 . Rios, Edwin (November 26, 2022). \"Trump condemned for dining with white supremacist Nick Fuentes\" . The Guardian . Niquette, Mark (November 25, 2022). \"Trump Dines at Mar-a-Lago With Rapper Ye and White Supremacist\" . Bloomberg News . Retrieved November 26, 2022 . Reston, Maeve; Holmes, Kristen (November 26, 2022). \"Trump hosted Holocaust denier at Mar-a-Lago estate during visit with Kanye West, a week after announcing 2024 run\" . CNN . Weisman, Jonathan (November 29, 2022). \"Jewish Allies Call Trump's Dinner With Antisemites a Breaking Point\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved November 29, 2022 . ^ Moses, Sharon K. (November 9, 2025). \"Minorities Who Advocate White Supremacist and Nazi Ideology in the United States\" . Humans . 5 (4): 28. doi : 10.3390/humans5040028 .",
   "lead_after": "American far-right political activist (born 1998) \"Nicholas Fuentes\" redirects here. For the Peruvian footballer, see Nicolás Fuentes . Not to be confused with Nick Freitas . Nicholas Joseph Fuentes (born August 18, 1998) is an American far-right political commentator , live streamer , and influencer . He hosts the livestreamed show America First , where he has advanced white nationalism and white supremacy , Christian nationalism , the incel subculture, misogyny , anti-LGBTQ views, and antisemitism including Holocaust denial . His supporters are known as \" Groypers \". Fuentes was raised in La Grange Park, Illinois , and held mainstream conservative views while in high school. He became active in politics after graduating in 2016, voiced support for Donald Trump , and launched America First in 2017. He attended the 2017 Unite the Right rally . In 2019, his followers confronted speakers at Turning Point USA events in what became known as the \" Groyper War \". In 2020, he founded the America First Political Action Conference (AFPAC), described as a white nationalist alternative to CPAC , which has since been discontinued. Fuentes later appeared at events preceding the January 6 United States Capitol attack . He drew further attention in 2022 after attending a private dinner at Mar-a-Lago with Donald Trump and Kanye West . In 2024, he initiated a second \"Groyper War\" targeting Trump's 2024 presidential campaign . Between 2020 and 2023, Fuentes was removed from numerous social media, streaming, and financial platforms for violating hate-speech policies and for his involvement in events surrounding January 6. ^ Reilly, Katie (August 17, 2017). \"Boston University Student Quits After Charlottesville Rally\" . TIME . Retrieved April 24, 2026 . ^ \"Deposition of Nicholas J. Fuentes\" (PDF) . GovInfo . U.S. Government Publishing Office. February 16, 2022 . Retrieved April 24, 2026 . ^ America First Ep. 1575 . Rumble (Video). October 1, 2025. Event occurs at 2:02:10 . Retrieved October 2, 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference white-nationalist was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference white-supremacist was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Owen, Tess (June 7, 2022). \"They Love Jesus, Bon Iver, and Incels. Inside America's New Ultranationalist Youth Movement\" . Vice.com . Retrieved October 15, 2022 . ^ Multiple sources: \"Kanye West Twitter ban: A timeline of the rapper's downfall\" . BBC News . December 2, 2022. far-right political commentator Nick Fuentes Ankel, Sophia (January 20, 2022). \"Jan. 6 panel subpoenas 2 far-right activists said to have received $275,000 worth of bitcoin from French computer programmer before riot\" . Business Insider . Haberman, Maggie; Feuer, Alan (November 25, 2022). \"Trump's Latest Dinner Guest: Nick Fuentes, White Supremacist\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved November 26, 2022 . Rios, Edwin (November 26, 2022). \"Trump condemned for dining with white supremacist Nick Fuentes\" . The Guardian . Niquette, Mark (November 25, 2022). \"Trump Dines at Mar-a-Lago With Rapper Ye and White Supremacist\" . Bloomberg News . Retrieved November 26, 2022 . Reston, Maeve; Holmes, Kristen (November 26, 2022). \"Trump hosted Holocaust denier at Mar-a-Lago estate during visit with Kanye West, a week after announcing 2024 run\" . CNN . Weisman, Jonathan (November 29, 2022). \"Jewish Allies Call Trump's Dinner With Antisemites a Breaking Point\" . The New York Times . ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved November 29, 2022 . ^ Moses, Sharon K. (November 9, 2025). \"Minorities Who Advocate White Supremacist and Nazi Ideology in the United States\" . Humans . 5 (4): 28. doi : 10.3390/humans5040028 ."
  },
  {
   "title": "Sea of Galilee",
   "pageid": 69310,
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   "lead_before": "Freshwater lake in Israel \"Lake Galilee\" redirects here. For the salt lake in Queensland, Australia, see Lake Galilee (Queensland) . The Sea of Galilee ( Hebrew : יָם כִּנֶּרֶת , Judeo-Aramaic : יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר, Arabic : بحيرة طبريا ), also called Lake Tiberias , Genezareth Lake or Kinneret , is a freshwater lake in Israel . It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after the Dead Sea , a salt lake ), with its elevation fluctuating between 215 and 209 metres (705 and 686 ft) below sea level (depending on rainfall). It is approximately 53 km (33 mi) in circumference, about 21 km (13 mi) long, and 13 km (8 mi) wide. Its area is 166.7 km (64.4 sq mi) at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 metres (141 ft). The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is the Jordan River , which flows through it from north to south with the outflow controlled by the Degania Dam . ^ Aaron T. Wolf, Hydropolitics along the Jordan River Archived 28 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine , United Nations University Press, 1995 ^ \"Exact-me.org\" . Archived from the original on 25 January 2012 . Retrieved 1 February 2008 . ^ The 1996-discovered subglacial Lake Vostok challenges both records; it is estimated to be 200 m (660 ft) to 600 m (2,000 ft) below sea level . ^ \"Kinneret – General\" (in Hebrew). Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research Ltd. ^ Data Summary: Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine",
   "lead_after": "Freshwater lake in Israel \"Lake Galilee\" redirects here. For the salt lake in Queensland, Australia, see Lake Galilee (Queensland) . The Sea of Galilee ( Hebrew : יָם כִּנֶּרֶת , Judeo-Aramaic : יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר, Arabic : بحيرة طبريا ), also called Lake Tiberias , Genezareth Lake or Kinneret , is a freshwater lake in Israel . It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after the Dead Sea , a salt lake ), with its elevation fluctuating between 215 and 209 metres (705 and 686 ft) below sea level (depending on rainfall). It is approximately 53 km (33 mi) in circumference, about 21 km (13 mi) long, and 13 km (8 mi) wide. Its area is 166.7 km (64.4 sq mi) at its fullest, and its maximum depth is approximately 43 metres (141 ft). The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is the Jordan River , which flows through it from north to south with the outflow controlled by the Degania Dam . ^ Aaron T. Wolf, Hydropolitics along the Jordan River Archived 28 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine , United Nations University Press, 1995 ^ \"Exact-me.org\" . Archived from the original on 25 January 2012 . Retrieved 1 February 2008 . ^ The 1996-discovered subglacial Lake Vostok challenges both records; it is estimated to be 200 m (660 ft) to 600 m (2,000 ft) below sea level . ^ \"Kinneret – General\" (in Hebrew). Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research Ltd. ^ Data Summary: Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine"
  },
  {
   "title": "Dead Sea",
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   "lead_before": "Salt lake in the Levant For other uses, see Dead Sea (disambiguation) . The Dead Sea ( Arabic : اَلْبَحْر الْمَيِّت , romanized : al-Baḥr al-Mayyit ; or اَلْبَحْر الْمَيْت , al-Baḥr al-Mayt ; Hebrew : יַם הַמֶּלַח , romanized : Yam hamMelaḥ ), also known by other names , is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east, the West Bank to the west and Israel to the southwest. It lies in the endorheic basin of the Jordan Rift Valley , and its main tributary is the Jordan River . As of 2025, the lake's surface is 439.78 metres (1,443 ft) below sea level , making its shores the lowest land-based elevation on Earth. It is 304 m (997 ft) deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With a salinity of 342 g/kg, or 34.2% (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water , 9.6 times as salty as the ocean —and has a density of 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to floating . This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea's main, northern basin is 50 kilometres (31 mi) long and 15 kilometres (9 mi) wide at its widest point. The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. It was one of the world's first health resorts , and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilisers . Today, tourists visit the sea on its Israeli, Jordanian and West Bank coastlines. The Dead Sea is receding at a swift rate; its surface area today is 605 km (234 sq mi), having been 1,050 km (410 sq mi) in 1930. Multiple canal and pipeline proposals, such as the scrapped Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, have been made to reduce its recession. ^ \"Virtual Israel Experience: The Dead Sea\" . Jewish Virtual Library . Archived from the original on 15 January 2013 . Retrieved 21 January 2013 . ^ \"The Dead Sea Is Dying Fast: Is It Too Late to Save It, or Was It Always a Lost Cause?\" . Haaretz . 7 October 2016. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. ^ Dead Sea Data Summary 2015 Deprecated link archived 2015-02-21 at archive.today . Water Authority of Israel . \"Red Sea – Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program\" . The World Bank Group. 2013. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. ^ \"מפלס ים המלח משנת 1976 (Dead Sea Level since 1976)\" . Government Data (Israel) (in Hebrew) . Retrieved 11 March 2025 . ^ \"Long-Term changes in the Dead Sea\" . Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research – Israel Marine Data Center (ISRAMAR). Archived from the original on 6 November 2018 . Retrieved 31 May 2014 . ^ Cite error: The named reference DSC1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference DSC2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Goetz, P. W., ed. (1986). \"Dead Sea\". The New Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 3 (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. p. 937. ^ McColl, R W, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of world geography . Facts on File. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-8160-7229-3 . Archived from the original on 30 October 2023 . Retrieved 10 November 2020 . ^ \"Dead Sea—Composition of Dead Sea Water\" . Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. ^ \"5 alliances shortlisted to execute Red-Dead's phase I\" . The Jordan Times . 27 November 2016. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016 . Retrieved 3 December 2016 .",
   "lead_after": "Salt lake in the Levant For other uses, see Dead Sea (disambiguation) . The Dead Sea ( Arabic : اَلْبَحْر الْمَيِّت , romanized : al-Baḥr al-Mayyit ; or اَلْبَحْر الْمَيْت , al-Baḥr al-Mayt ; Hebrew : יַם הַמֶּלַח , romanized : Yam hamMelaḥ ), also known by other names , is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east, the West Bank to the west and Israel to the southwest. It lies in the endorheic basin of the Jordan Rift Valley , and its main tributary is the Jordan River . As of 2025, the lake's surface is 439.78 metres (1,443 ft) below sea level , making its shores the lowest land-based elevation on Earth. It is 304 m (997 ft) deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With a salinity of 342 g/kg, or 34.2% (in 2011), it is one of the world's saltiest bodies of water , 9.6 times as salty as the ocean —and has a density of 1.24 kg/litre, which makes swimming similar to floating . This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea's main, northern basin is 50 kilometres (31 mi) long and 15 kilometres (9 mi) wide at its widest point. The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. It was one of the world's first health resorts , and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilisers . Today, tourists visit the sea on its Israeli, Jordanian and West Bank coastlines. The Dead Sea is receding at a swift rate; its surface area today is 605 km (234 sq mi), having been 1,050 km (410 sq mi) in 1930. Multiple canal and pipeline proposals, such as the scrapped Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, have been made to reduce its recession. ^ \"Virtual Israel Experience: The Dead Sea\" . Jewish Virtual Library . Archived from the original on 15 January 2013 . Retrieved 21 January 2013 . ^ \"The Dead Sea Is Dying Fast: Is It Too Late to Save It, or Was It Always a Lost Cause?\" . Haaretz . 7 October 2016. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. ^ Dead Sea Data Summary 2015 Archived 2 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine . Water Authority of Israel . \"Red Sea – Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program\" . The World Bank Group. 2013. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013. ^ \"מפלס ים המלח משנת 1976 (Dead Sea Level since 1976)\" . Government Data (Israel) (in Hebrew) . Retrieved 11 March 2025 . ^ \"Long-Term changes in the Dead Sea\" . Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research – Israel Marine Data Center (ISRAMAR). Archived from the original on 6 November 2018 . Retrieved 31 May 2014 . ^ Cite error: The named reference DSC1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference DSC2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Goetz, P. W., ed. (1986). \"Dead Sea\". The New Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 3 (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. p. 937. ^ McColl, R W, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of world geography . Facts on File. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-8160-7229-3 . Archived from the original on 30 October 2023 . Retrieved 10 November 2020 . ^ \"Dead Sea—Composition of Dead Sea Water\" . Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. ^ \"5 alliances shortlisted to execute Red-Dead's phase I\" . The Jordan Times . 27 November 2016. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016 . Retrieved 3 December 2016 ."
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 "changed": 150,
 "lead_changed": 61,
 "term_movers": 7
}