Al-Andalus

other uses Moorish Garden in Granada , al-Andalus Al-Andalus ( ) was the Arabic name given to a nation in the parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Berbers and African Muslims (given the generic name of Moors ), at various times in the period between 711 and 1492. Following the conquest, al-Andalus was divided into five administrative areas roughly corresponding to Andalusia , Galicia and Portugal , Castile and Léon , Aragon and Catalonia , and Septimania . As a political domain or domains, it successively constituted a province of the Umayyad Caliphate , initiated by the Caliph Al-Walid I (711–750); the Emirate of Córdoba (c. 750–929); the Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031); and the Caliphate of Córdoba's taifa (successor) kingdoms. In succeeding centuries, al-Andalus became a province of the Berber Muslim dynasties of the Almoravids and Almohads , subsequently fragmenting into a number of minor states, most notably the Emirate of Granada . In 1085, Alfonso VI of León and Castile captured Toledo , precipitating a gradual decline until, by 1236, with the fall of Córdoba, the Emirate of Granada remained the only Muslim-ruled territory in what is now Spain . The Portuguese Reconquista culminated in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III . In 1238, the Emirate of Granada officially became a tributary state to the Kingdom of Castile , then ruled by King Ferdinand III . On January 2, 1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile , who along with her husband King Ferdinand II of Aragon were Los Reyes Católicos , or "The Catholic Monarchs". The surrender concluded al-Andalus as a political entity. "Andalus, al-" Oxford Dictionary of Islam .

Al-Andalus and Christian kingdoms circa 1000 AD Al-Andalus ( , trans. al-ʼAndalus ; ; ; ; ; Berber : Andalus or Wandalus ), also known as Muslim Spain or Islamic Iberia , was a medieval Muslim cultural domain and territory occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal . At its greatest geographical extent in the eighth century, southern France— Septimania —was briefly under its control. The name more generally describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims (given the generic name of Moors ) at various times between 711 and 1492, though the boundaries changed constantly as the Christian Reconquista progressed. Following the Muslim conquest of Hispania , Al-Andalus, then at its greatest extent, was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to modern Andalusia , Portugal and Galicia , Castile and León , Navarre , Aragon , the County of Barcelona , and Septimania . As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the Umayyad Caliphate , initiated by the Caliph Al-Walid I (711–750); the Emirate of Córdoba (c. 750–929); the Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031); and the Caliphate of Córdoba's taifa (successor) kingdoms. Rule under these kingdoms saw a rise in cultural exchange and cooperation between Muslims and Christians , with Christians and Jews considered as second class citizens who paid a special tax, Jizya , to the state which provided internal autonomy and offered certain protection by Muslim rulers. Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, Al-Andalus was a beacon of learning, and the city of Córdoba became one of the leading cultural and economic centres in Europe and throughout the Mediterranean Basin and the Islamic world. A number of achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from Al-Andalus including major advances in trigonometry ( Geber ), astronomy ( Arzachel ), surgery ( Abulcasis ), pharmacology ( Avenzoar ), and other fields. Al-Andalus became a major educational center for Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea as well as a conduit for culture and science between the Islamic and Christian worlds. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, Al-Andalus was fragmented into a number of minor states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under Alfonso VI . The Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, deposing the weak Andalusi Muslim princes and included Al-Andalus under direct Berber rule. In the next century and a half, Al-Andalus became a province of the Berber Muslim empires of the Almoravids and Almohads , both based in Marrakesh . Ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered their Muslim neighbors. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured Toledo , starting a gradual decline of Muslim power. With the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III , leaving Granada as the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. Finally, on January 2, 1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile , completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. Although Al-Andalus ended as a political entity, it left a lasting influence that can be seen in the cuisine, architecture, gardens and textiles of Spain and Portugal, particularly in Andalusia . Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media . "Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica." ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania") "Andalus, al-" Oxford Dictionary of Islam . Peaceful coexistence led to their economic and social expansion. Their status was that of Dhimmis , non-Muslims living in a land governed by Muslims. The Jews had limited autonomy, but full rights to practice their religion, as well as full protection by their Muslim rulers, but this did not occur for free. There was a specific tax called the jizya that Dhimmis had to pay to receive these benefits. Having its origin in the Qur'an, it states Dhimmis who did not pay this tax, should either convert to Islam, or face the death penalty (Qur'an 9, 29). This tax, higher than the tax Muslims had to pay, was in several occasions one of the most important sources of income for the kingdom. The jizya was not only a tax, but also a symbolic expression of subordination (Lewis 14)."It is a common misapprehension that the holy war meant that the Muslims gave their opponents a choice 'between Islam and the sword'. This was sometimes the case, but only when the opponents were polytheist and idol-worshippers.

The territories of the Iberian Peninsula under Moorish rule between 711 and 1492 Al-Andalus and Christian kingdoms c. 1000 AD, at the apogee of Almanzor Al-Andalus was the name given by the Muslims during the Middle Ages to the Iberian Peninsula . At its greatest geographical extent, its territory occupied most of the peninsula and a part of present-day southern France , Septimania (8th century), and for nearly a century (9th–10th centuries) extended its control from Fraxinet over the Alpine passes which connect Italy to Western Europe. The name more specifically describes the different Arab or Berber states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492, though the boundaries changed constantly as the Christian Reconquista progressed, eventually shrinking to the south and finally to the vassalage of the Emirate of Granada . Following the Umayyad conquest of Hispania , al-Andalus, then at its greatest extent, was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to modern Andalusia ; Portugal and Galicia ; Castile and León ; Navarre , Aragon , and Catalonia ; and the Languedoc-Roussillon area of Occitanie . As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the Umayyad Caliphate , initiated by the Caliph Al-Walid I (711–750); the Emirate of Córdoba (c. 750–929); the Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031); and the Caliphate of Córdoba's taifa (successor) kingdoms. Rule under these kingdoms led to a rise in cultural exchange and cooperation between Muslims and Christians . Christians and Jews were subject to a special tax called jizya , to the state, which in return provided internal autonomy in practicing their religion and offered the same level of protections by the Muslim rulers. The jizya was not only a tax, however, but also a symbolic expression of subordination. Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, al-Andalus was a beacon of learning, and the city of Córdoba , the largest in Europe, became one of the leading cultural and economic centres throughout the Mediterranean Basin , Europe, and the Islamic world. Achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus, including major advances in trigonometry ( Geber ), astronomy ( Arzachel ), surgery ( Abulcasis Al Zahrawi ), pharmacology ( Avenzoar ), and agronomy ( Ibn Bassal and Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī ). Al-Andalus became a major educational center for Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea as well as a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into minor states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under Alfonso VI . The Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, deposing the weak Andalusi Muslim princes, and included al-Andalus under direct Berber rule. In the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Berber Muslim empires of the Almoravids and Almohads , both based in Marrakesh . Ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured Toledo , starting a gradual decline of Muslim power. With the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III , leaving Granada as the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. Finally, on January 2, 1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile , completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ). Law and the Islamization of Morocco under the Almoravids: The Fatwās of Ibn Rushd al-Jadd to the Far Maghrib . "The Christian Frontier against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): concept and politics during the reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his successors until 1230" . In Natalie Fryde; Dirk Reitz (eds.). Some authors mention bands penetrating as far north as Sankt Gallen, where they sacked the monastery in 939. Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media . Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania") The Oxford Dictionary of Islam . OCLC 50280143 . : CS1 maint: others ( link ) O'Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medieval Spain . The Jews of Islam ; Meyrick, Fredrick. The Doctrine of the Church of England on the Holy Communion . Peaceful coexistence led to their economic and social expansion. Their status was that of Dhimmis , non-Muslims living in a land governed by Muslims. The Jews had limited autonomy, but full rights to practice their religion, as well as full protection by their Muslim rulers, but this did not occur for free. There was a specific tax called the jizya that Dhimmis had to pay to receive these benefits. Having its origin in the Qur'an, it states Dhimmis who did not pay this tax, should either convert to Islam, or face the death penalty (Qur'an 9, 29). This tax, higher than the tax Muslims had to pay, was in several occasions one of the most important sources of income for the kingdom. The jizya was not only a tax, but also a symbolic expression of subordination (Lewis 14). This was sometimes the case, but only when the opponents were polytheist and idol-worshippers.

Territories of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule (711–1492) This article is about the historical region. The term is used by modern historians for the former Islamic states in modern Spain, Portugal, and France. The name describes the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most of the peninsula and part of present-day southern France ( Septimania ) under Umayyad rule. These boundaries changed constantly through a series of conquests Western historiography has traditionally characterized as the Reconquista , eventually shrinking to the south and finally to the Emirate of Granada . As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the Umayyad Caliphate , initiated by the Caliph al-Walid I (711–750); the Emirate of Córdoba ( c. 750 –929); the Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031); the first taifa kingdoms (1009–1110); the Almoravid Empire (1085–1145); the second taifa period (1140–1203); the Almohad Caliphate (1147–1238); the third taifa period (1232–1287); and ultimately the Nasrid Emirate of Granada (1238–1492). Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, the city of Córdoba became one of the leading cultural and economic centres throughout the Mediterranean Basin , Europe, and the Islamic world. Achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus, including major advances in trigonometry ( Jabir ibn Aflah ), astronomy ( Al-Zarqali ), surgery ( Al-Zahrawi ), pharmacology ( Ibn Zuhr ), and agronomy ( Ibn Bassal and Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī ). Al-Andalus became a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into minor taifa states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under Alfonso VI , culminating with the capture of Toledo in 1085. The Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, then brought al-Andalus under direct Almoravid rule. Ultimately, the northern Christian kingdoms overpowered the Muslim states to the south. With the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule, and the Emirate of Granada became a tributary state of the Kingdom of Castile two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the Algarve by Afonso III , leaving Granada as the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. Finally, on January 2, 1492, Emir Muhammad XII surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen Isabella I of Castile , completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ). Law and the Islamization of Morocco under the Almoravids: The Fatwās of Ibn Rushd al-Jadd to the Far Maghrib . "Para los autores árabes medievales, el término Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas – siquiera temporalmente – por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" ("For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas – even temporarily – by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Spain, Portugal and France"), García de Cortázar, José Ángel . Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media . Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania") Irvin, Dale T.; Sunquist, Scott (2002). "The Christian Frontier against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): concept and politics during the reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his successors until 1230" . In Natalie Fryde; Dirk Reitz (eds.). Barely eight years after the initial crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Muslims had come to dominate almost the entire Peninsula with the exception of a few northern mountainous regions along Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges. In these areas, indigenous populations, including the Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques, who had been brought under Visigothic control, were able to escape Islamic domination. La Reconquista: una construcción historiográfica (siglos XVI-XIX) . México Madrid: Universidad nacional autónoma de México, Instituto de inversigaciones históricas M. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam .

Muslim-ruled parts of the Iberian Peninsula (711–1492) This article is about the Muslim-ruled Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Umayyad Hispania at its greatest extent in 719 AD Caliphate of Córdoba c. 1000 AD, at the apogee of Almanzor Al-Andalus ( Arabic : الأَنْدَلُس , romanized : al-ʾAndalus ) was the Muslim -ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula . The name refers to the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most of the peninsula as well as Septimania under Umayyad rule. These boundaries changed through a series of conquests Western historiography has traditionally characterized as the Reconquista , eventually shrinking to the south and finally to the Emirate of Granada . As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the Umayyad Caliphate , initiated by the Caliph al-Walid I (711–750); the Emirate of Córdoba ( c. 750 –929); the Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031); the first taifa kingdoms (1009–1110); the Almoravid Empire (1085–1145); the second taifa period (1140–1203); the Almohad Caliphate (1147–1238); the third taifa period (1232–1287); and ultimately the Nasrid Emirate of Granada (1238–1492). Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, the city of Córdoba became one of the leading cultural and economic centres throughout the Mediterranean Basin , Europe, and the Islamic world. Achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus, including major advances in trigonometry ( Jabir ibn Aflah ), astronomy ( al-Zarqali ), surgery ( al-Zahrawi ), pharmacology ( Ibn Zuhr ), and agronomy ( Ibn Bassal and Abu'l-Khayr al-Ishbili ). Al-Andalus became a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into taifa states and principalities, some of which (such as the Taifa of Toledo , the Taifa of Zaragoza , the Taifa of Seville and the Taifa of Badajoz ) reached considerable territorial extent. After the Christian capture of Toledo in 1085, the Almoravid empire intervened and repelled attacks on the region, then brought al-Andalus under direct Almoravid rule. Ultimately, the northern Christian kingdoms overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In the 13th century, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule, with Gharb al-Andalus , the Guadalquivir Valley and Eastern al-Andalus falling to Portuguese, Castilian, and Aragonese conquests. This left the Emirate of Granada , that was to become a tributary state of the Crown of Castile, as the remaining Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula, and was surrendered in 1492 to the Catholic Monarchs . There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ). "Para los autores árabes medievales, el término Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas – siquiera temporalmente – por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" ("For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas – even temporarily – by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Spain, Portugal and France"), García de Cortázar, José Ángel . Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media . Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania") Irvin, Dale T.; Sunquist, Scott (2002). "The Christian Frontier against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): concept and politics during the reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his successors until 1230" . In Natalie Fryde; Dirk Reitz (eds.). Barely eight years after the initial crossing of the Straits of Gibraltar, the Muslims had come to dominate almost the entire Peninsula with the exception of a few northern mountainous regions along Cantabrian and Pyrenean ranges. In these areas, indigenous populations, including the Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques, who had been brought under Visigothic control, were able to escape Islamic domination. La Reconquista: una construcción historiográfica (siglos XVI-XIX) . México Madrid: Universidad nacional autónoma de México, Instituto de inversigaciones históricas M. The notion of Reconquista is the product of 19th-century Spanish Nationalist thinking. Although developed as an academic concept, it played, at the same time, a crucial political and ideological role, thus holding a very powerful and potentially toxic ideological burden, chiefly consisting of the idea that Spain is a nation shaped against Islam. Its dual academic and ideological nature makes it a highly problematic concept that greatly contributed to produce a largely biased and distorted vision of the Iberian medieval past, aimed at delegitimizing the Islamic presence (al-Andalus) and therefore at legitimizing the Christian conquest of the Muslim territory. Over the last years and in the framework of the Clash of Civilizations doctrine, conservative and far-right scholarly and political outlets reignited the most ideological version of the Reconquista, thus raising a major challenge for academic historians. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam .