Baruch Spinoza

Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza ( , , ) (November 24, 1632 – February 21, 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin. Revealing considerable scientific aptitude, the breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until years after his death. Today, he is considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy , laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism . By virtue of his magnum opus , the posthumous Ethics , in which he opposed Descartes' mind–body dualism, Spinoza is considered to be one of Western philosophy's most important philosophers. Philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said of all modern philosophers, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all." Though Spinoza was active in the Dutch Jewish community and extremely well-versed in Jewish texts, his controversial ideas eventually led community leaders to issue a cherem (Hebrew: חרם, a kind of excommunication ) against him, effectively dismissing him from Jewish society at age 23. Some historians argue that the Roman Catholic Church forced them to do so. Other historians, notably Richard Popkin, question the historical veracity of the documents claiming Spinoza was issued a cherem, which emerged close to 300 years after Spinoza's death. Likewise, all of Spinoza's works were listed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books) by the Roman Catholic Church . Spinoza lived quietly as a lens grinder, turning down rewards and honors throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions, and gave his family inheritance to his sister. Spinoza's moral character and philosophical accomplishments prompted 20th century philosopher Gilles Deleuze to name him "the 'prince' of philosophers." Spinoza died at the age of 44 of a lung illness, perhaps tuberculosis or silicosis exacerbated by fine glass dust inhaled while plying his trade. Spinoza is buried in the churchyard of the Nieuwe Kerk on Spui in The Hague . Hegel's History of Philosophy quoted in the translator's preface of Deleuze Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza (1990).

Baruch Spinoza ( / b ə ˈ r uː k s p ɪ ˈ n oʊ z ə / ; born Benedito de Espinosa ; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677, later Benedict de Spinoza ) was a Dutch philosopher of Sephardi Portuguese origin. The breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until many years after his death. By laying the groundwork for the 18th-century Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism , including modern conceptions of the self and, arguably, the universe, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy . His magnum opus , the posthumous Ethics , in which he opposed Descartes ' mind–body dualism , has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy 's most important thinkers. In the Ethics , "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely." Hegel said, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all." His philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted 20th-century philosopher Gilles Deleuze to name him "the 'prince' of philosophers". Spinoza's given name varies between different languages: Baruch Spinoza , and ; in all these languages, the given name means "Blessed". Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. The Jewish religious authorities issued a cherem (Hebrew: חרם, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or excommunication ) against him, effectively excluding him from Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books . Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life as a lens grinder, turning down rewards and honours throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions. Spinoza died at the age of 44 allegedly of a lung illness, perhaps tuberculosis or silicosis exacerbated by fine glass dust inhaled while grinding optical lenses. Spinoza is buried in the churchyard of the Christian Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague . "Spinoza" entry in Collins English Dictionary , HarperCollins Publishers, 1998. The New Republic . 3 May 2012 . Hegel's History of Philosophy .

Baruch Spinoza ( / b ə ˈ r uː k s p ɪ ˈ n oʊ z ə / ; ; born Benedito de Espinosa , ; later Benedict de Spinoza ; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Sephardi origin. One of the early thinkers of the Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism , including modern conceptions of the self and the universe, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy . Inspired by the groundbreaking ideas of René Descartes , Spinoza became a leading philosophical figure of the Dutch Golden Age . Spinoza's given name, which means "Blessed", varies among different languages. In Hebrew, it is written . His Portuguese name is Benedito "Bento" de Espinosa or d'Espinosa . In his Latin works, he used . Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese-Jewish community in Amsterdam . He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine . Jewish religious authorities issued a herem ( ) against him, causing him to be effectively expelled and shunned by Jewish society at age 23, including by his own family. His books were later added to the Catholic Church 's Index of Forbidden Books . He was frequently called an "atheist" by contemporaries, although nowhere in his work does Spinoza argue against the existence of God . Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life as an optical lens grinder, collaborating on microscope and telescope lens designs with Constantijn and Christiaan Huygens . He turned down rewards and honours throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions. He died at the age of 44 in 1677 from a lung illness, perhaps tuberculosis or silicosis exacerbated by the inhalation of fine glass dust while grinding lenses. He is buried in the Christian churchyard of Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague . Spinoza's magnum opus , the Ethics , was published posthumously in the year of his death. The work opposed Descartes' philosophy of mind–body dualism and earned Spinoza recognition as one of Western philosophy 's most important thinkers. In it, "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely". The Young Spinoza: A Metaphysician in the Making , Oxford University Press, 2015, ch. 7 . The Coherence Theory of Truth (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) David, Marian (28 May 2015). Correspondence theory of truth – The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Scruton 2002 , "Through the works of Moses Maimonides and the commentaries of the Arab Averroës , Spinoza would have become acquainted with Aristotle". The New Republic . 3 May 2012 . Hegel's History of Philosophy . There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ).

Baruch ( de ) Spinoza (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, born in Amsterdam , the Dutch Republic , and mostly known under the Latinized pen name Benedictus de Spinoza . One of the foremost and seminal thinkers of the Enlightenment , modern biblical criticism , and 17th-century Rationalism , including modern conceptions of the self and the universe, he came to be considered "one of the most important philosophers—and certainly the most radical—of the early modern period ". Inspired by Stoicism , Jewish Rationalism , Machiavelli , Hobbes , Descartes , and a variety of heterodox religious thinkers of his day, Spinoza became a leading philosophical figure of the Dutch Golden Age . Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese-Jewish community of Amsterdam . He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine . Jewish religious authorities issued a herem ( חרם ‎) against him, causing him to be effectively expelled and shunned by Jewish society at age 23, including by his own family. He was frequently called an "atheist" by contemporaries, although nowhere in his work does Spinoza argue against the existence of God . Spinoza lived an outwardly simple life as an optical lens grinder, collaborating on microscope and telescope lens designs with Constantijn and Christiaan Huygens . He turned down rewards and honours throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions. He died at the age of 44 in 1677 from a lung illness, perhaps tuberculosis or silicosis exacerbated by the inhalation of fine glass dust while grinding lenses. He is buried in the Christian churchyard of Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague . In June 1678—just over a year after Spinoza's death—the States of Holland banned his entire works, since they "contain very many profane, blasphemous and atheistic propositions." The prohibition included the owning, reading, distribution, copying, and restating of Spinoza's books, and even the reworking of his fundamental ideas. Shortly after (1679/1690) his books were added to the Catholic Church 's Index of Forbidden Books . Spinoza's philosophy encompasses nearly every area of philosophical discourse, including metaphysics , epistemology , political philosophy , ethics , philosophy of mind , and philosophy of science . It earned Spinoza an enduring reputation as one of the most important and original thinkers of the seventeenth century. Spinoza's philosophy is largely contained in two books: the Theologico-Political Treatise , and the Ethics . The rest of the writings we have from Spinoza are either earlier or incomplete works expressing thoughts that were crystallized in the two aforementioned books ( e.g. , the Short Treatise and the Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect ), or else they are not directly concerned with Spinoza's own philosophy ( e.g. , The Principles of Cartesian Philosophy and The Hebrew Grammar ). He also left behind many letters that help to illuminate his ideas and provide some insight into what may have been motivating his views. The Theologico-Political Treatise was published during his lifetime, but the work which contains the entirety of his philosophical system in its most rigorous form, the Ethics , was published posthumously in the year of his death. The work opposed Descartes's philosophy of mind–body dualism and earned Spinoza recognition as one of Western philosophy 's most important thinkers. Correspondence theory of truth – The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Spinoza-Machiavelli Encounter: Time and Occasion . Jonathan Israel in his various works on the Enlightenment , e.g., Israel, Jonathan (2001). (in the index "Spinoza, Benedict (Baruch) de") and Israel, Jonathan (2011). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . The National Endowment for the Humanities . Spinoza and Other Heretics: The Adventures of Immanence . The New Republic . 3 May 2012 . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Intermountain West Journal of Religious Studies . 5 (1). A Metaphysician in the Making , ed. by YITZHAK Y. Hübner, Karolina (2022), "Spinoza's Epistemology and Philosophy of Mind" , in Zalta, Edward N. There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ).

Baruch ( de ) Spinoza (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677), also known under his Latinized pen name Benedictus de Spinoza , was a philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, who was born in the Dutch Republic . A forerunner of the Age of Enlightenment , Spinoza significantly influenced modern biblical criticism , 17th-century rationalism , and Dutch intellectual culture, establishing himself as one of the most important and radical philosophers of the early modern period . Influenced by Stoicism , Thomas Hobbes , René Descartes , Ibn Tufayl , and heterodox Christians, Spinoza was a leading philosopher of the Dutch Golden Age . Spinoza was born in Amsterdam to a Marrano family that fled Portugal for the more tolerant Dutch Republic . He received a traditional Jewish education, learning Hebrew and studying sacred texts within the Portuguese Jewish community, where his father was a prominent merchant. As a young man, Spinoza challenged rabbinic authority and questioned Jewish doctrines, leading to his permanent expulsion from his Jewish community in 1656. Following that expulsion, he distanced himself from all religious affiliations and devoted himself to philosophical inquiry and lens grinding. Spinoza attracted a dedicated circle of followers who gathered to discuss his writings and joined him in the intellectual pursuit of truth. Spinoza published little, to avoid persecution and bans on his books. In his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus , described by Steven Nadler as "one of the most important books of Western thought", Spinoza questioned the divine origin of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of God while arguing that ecclesiastic authority should have no role in a secular, democratic state. Ethics argues for a pantheistic view of God and explores the place of human freedom in a world devoid of theological, cosmological, and political moorings. Rejecting messianism and the emphasis on the afterlife, Spinoza emphasized appreciating and valuing life for oneself and others. By advocating for individual liberty in its moral, psychological, and metaphysical dimensions, Spinoza helped establish the genre of political writing called secular theology . Spinoza's philosophy spans nearly every area of philosophical discourse, including metaphysics , epistemology , political philosophy , ethics , philosophy of mind , and philosophy of science . His friends posthumously published his works, captivating philosophers for the next two centuries. Celebrated as one of the most original and influential thinkers of the seventeenth century, Rebecca Goldstein dubbed him "the renegade Jew who gave us modernity". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2018 ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ).