Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a theoretical physicist , philosopher and author who is widely regarded as one of the most influential and best known scientists and intellectuals of all time. He is often regarded as the father of modern physics . He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect ." His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity, the founding of relativistic cosmology , the first post-Newtonian expansion , explaining the perihelion precession of Mercury , prediction of the deflection of light by gravity ( gravitational lensing ), the first fluctuation dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian motion of molecules, the photon theory and wave-particle duality , the quantum theory of atomic motion in solids , the zero-point energy concept, the semiclassical version of the Schrödinger equation , and the quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted Bose–Einstein condensation . Einstein published more than 300 scientific and over 150 non-scientific works; he additionally wrote and commentated prolifically on various philosophical and political subjects. His great intelligence and originality has made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius .

Albert Einstein ( / ˈ æ l b ər t ˈ aɪ n ʃ t aɪ n / ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist . He developed the general theory of relativity , one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics ). Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science . Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his "services to theoretical physics", in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect , a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory . Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field . This led to the development of his special theory of relativity . He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields , and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on general relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules . He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe . He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences . He settled in the U.S., becoming an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project . Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell , Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto , which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey , until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with " genius ". Attention: This template ( ) is deprecated. Marcel Grossmann gewidmet (Dedicated to my friend, Dr. Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics . A Biography of the World's Most Famous Equation . The Oxford Companion to United States History . His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud ), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld ). Stachel (2008) . sfnp error: no target: CITEREFStachel2008 ( help ) Overbye, Dennis (4 December 2014).

German-born physicist and developer of the theory of relativity (1879-1955) Start of a speech by Albert Einstein. The search and striving for truth and knowledge is one of the highest of men's qualities ..." United Jewish Appeal, 11 April 1943. Albert Einstein ( / ˈ aɪ n s t aɪ n / EYEN -styne ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of relativity , one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics ). His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. He is best known to the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc , which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect ", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory . The son of a salesman who later operated an electrochemical factory, Einstein was born in the German Empire but moved to Switzerland in 1895 and renounced his German citizenship in 1896. Specializing in physics and mathematics, he received his academic teaching diploma from the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School ( , later ETH) in Zürich in 1900. The following year, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for his entire life. After initially struggling to find work, from 1902 to 1909 he was employed as a patent examiner at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern . Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field . This led him to develop his special theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office . In 1905, called his annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking papers , which attracted the attention of the academic world; the first outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect , the second paper explained Brownian motion , the third paper introduced special relativity , and the fourth mass-energy equivalence . That year, at the age of 26, he was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich . Although initially treated with skepticism from many in the scientific community, Einstein's works gradually came to be recognised as significant advancements. He was invited to teach theoretical physics at the University of Bern in 1908 and the following year moved to the University of Zurich, then in 1911 to Charles University in Prague before returning to the Federal Polytechnic School in Zürich in 1912. In 1914, he was elected to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin , where he remained for 19 years. Soon after publishing his work on special relativity, Einstein began working to extend the theory to gravitational fields; he then published a paper on general relativity in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules . He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of radiation, the basis of laser, which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe. In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power. Because of his Jewish background, Einstein did not return to Germany. He settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II , he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting FDR to the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type" and recommending that the US begin similar research. This eventually led to the Manhattan Project . Einstein supported the Allies , but he generally denounced the idea of using nuclear fission as a weapon. He signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto with British philosopher Bertrand Russell , which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. He was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey , until his death in 1955. He published more than 300 scientific papers and more than 150 non-scientific works. His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with "genius". Eugene Wigner compared him to his contemporaries, writing that "Einstein's understanding was deeper even than Jancsi von Neumann 's. His mind was both more penetrating and more original". There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a template (see the help page ).

Albert Einstein ( / ˈ aɪ n s t aɪ n / EYEN -styne ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist , widely held to be one of the greatest and most influential scientists of all time. Best known for developing the theory of relativity , he also made important contributions to quantum mechanics , and was thus a central figure in the revolutionary reshaping of the scientific understanding of nature that modern physics accomplished in the first decades of the twentieth century. His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc , which arises from relativity theory, has been called "the world's most famous equation". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect ", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science . In a 1999 poll of 130 leading physicists worldwide by the British journal Physics World , Einstein was ranked the greatest physicist of all time. His intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein broadly synonymous with genius. In 1905, a year sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year), Einstein published four groundbreaking papers . These outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion , introduced his special theory of relativity —a theory which addressed the inability of classical mechanics to account satisfactorily for the behavior of the electromagnetic field —and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation . A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole. The middle part of his career also saw him making important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation , in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons . Firstly, he fought a long rearguard action against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that "God does not play dice". Secondly, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism too. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics. Born in the German Empire , Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg ) the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss Federal polytechnic school in Zürich , graduating in 1900. In 1901, he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1903, he secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich . In 1914, he moved to Berlin in order to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin . In 1917, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics ; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia . In 1933, while he was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi " war of extermination " against his fellow Jews, Einstein decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940. On the eve of World War II , he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research . Einstein supported the Allies but generally viewed the idea of nuclear weapons with great dismay. National Academy of Sciences . There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a template (see the help page ).

The Special and the General Theory (1916) The World as I See It (1934) " Why Socialism? Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics . His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc , which arises from special relativity , has been called "the world's most famous equation". He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for . Born in the German Empire , Einstein moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the Kingdom of Württemberg ) the following year. In 1897, at the age of seventeen, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss federal polytechnic school in Zurich , graduating in 1900. He acquired Swiss citizenship a year later, which he kept for the rest of his life, and afterwards secured a permanent position at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern . In 1905, he submitted a successful PhD dissertation to the University of Zurich . In 1914, he moved to Berlin to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences and the Humboldt University of Berlin , becoming director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in 1917; he also became a German citizen again, this time as a subject of the Kingdom of Prussia . In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Horrified by the Nazi persecution of his fellow Jews, he decided to remain in the US, and was granted American citizenship in 1940. On the eve of World War II , he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential German nuclear weapons program and recommending that the US begin similar research . In 1905, sometimes described as his annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking papers . In them, he outlined a theory of the photoelectric effect, explained Brownian motion , introduced his special theory of relativity, and demonstrated that if the special theory is correct, mass and energy are equivalent to each other. In 1915, he proposed a general theory of relativity that extended his system of mechanics to incorporate gravitation . A cosmological paper that he published the following year laid out the implications of general relativity for the modeling of the structure and evolution of the universe as a whole. In 1917, Einstein wrote a paper which introduced the concepts of spontaneous emission and stimulated emission , the latter of which is the core mechanism behind the laser and maser , and which contained a trove of information that would be beneficial to developments in physics later on, such as quantum electrodynamics and quantum optics . In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation , in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons . With physicist Satyendra Nath Bose , he laid the groundwork for Bose–Einstein statistics . First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that . Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism . As a result, he became increasingly isolated from mainstream modern physics . National Academy of Sciences . There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a template (see the help page ). There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ).