Fall of Constantinople

The Fall of Constantinople was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire which occurred after a siege laid by the Ottoman Empire , under the command of Sultan Mehmed II . The siege lasted from Friday, 6 April 1453 until Tuesday, 29 May 1453 (according to the Julian Calendar ), when the city was conquered by the Ottomans. Constantinople was defended by the army of Emperor Constantine XI . The event marked the end of the political independence of the millennium-old Byzantine Empire , which was by then already fragmented into several Greek monarchies. Following his accession to the Ottoman throne, Mehmed had been applying pressure on Constantinople and the Byzantines by building forts along the Dardanelles . On 5 April, he laid siege to Constantinople with an army numbering 80,000 to 200,000 men. The city was defended by an army of 7,000 of whom 2,000 were foreigners. The siege began with heavy Ottoman artillery firing at the city's walls while a smaller Ottoman force captured the rest of the Byzantine strongholds in the area. Ottoman attempts to blockade the city completely failed at first owing to the boom blocking the entrance to the Golden Horn thus allowing four Christian ships to enter the city. At the entrance to the Golden Horn, there was a large chain pulled across from Constantinople to the Tower of Galata on the northern side, preventing unwanted ships from entering. Mehmed was not able to enter his ships into the city, which is why he had his ships rolled into the Golden Horn on greased logs. Byzantine effort to destroy the ships with fire ships failed, allowing the Ottomans to seal the city off. The Turkish frontal assaults on the walls were all repulsed with heavy casualties and the Turkish attempts to undermine the walls were all countered and abandoned. Mehmed's offer to lift the siege, if he was given the city, was rejected. On 22 May, the moon rose in eclipse prophesying the fall of the city and a few days later Constantine received news that no Venetian relief fleet was coming. After midnight of the 29, the Ottoman army attacked the walls. The first wave of irregulars was thrown back. The second Turkish wave of Anatolians managed to breach the Blachernae section of walls. The defenders pushed back the Anatolians and managed to hold out against the Sultan's elite Janissaries . During the fighting, the Genoese commander, Giovanni Giustiniani was fatally wounded and retreated to his ships with his men. The Emperor and his men continued to hold off the Turks until the Turks discovered an unlocked gate upon which they flooded into the city. Constantine reportedly fell leading a charge against the invaders, though his body was never found. The last defenders were killed and the Turks proceeded to loot the city. This battle marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, an empire which had lasted for over 1,100 years. The city's fall was a massive blow for Christendom. Pope Nicholas V ordered an immediate counter-attack, but his death soon after marked the end of the plan. Mehmed made Constantinople his capital and proceeded to conquer the last two Byzantine states, the Despotate of Morea and the Empire of Trebizond . Many Greeks fled the city and migrated to other parts of Europe , in particular Italy . This move is thought to have helped fuel the Renaissance . A Short History of Byzantium . Contemporary Review , September 22, 2006 ("Some say the Middle Ages ended then").

By nationality, there were 5,000 Greeks and 2,000 foreigners, mostly of Genoese and Venetian origin. : 50,000 – 80,000 : 100,000 –160,000 –200,000 to 300,000 70 ships, 20 galleys 70 cannons (14 large and 56 small caliber ) 90 - 126 ships Casualties and losses 4,000 killed in total (including combatants and civilians) 30,000 were enslaved or deported Unknown but heavy a: Figures according to recent estimates and Ottoman archival data. The Ottoman Empire, for demographic reasons, would not have been able to put more than 80,000 men into the field at the time. b: Figures according to contemporaneous Western/Christian estimates c: More specifically, the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty d: The Kingdom of Sicily mainly donated ships and a few soldiers, it was not official however, and was done by several Cardinals. e: The Venetians decided to make a peace treaty with the Ottomans in September 1451, because their Doge was on good terms already with the Ottomans and they did not want to ruin a relationship. They also did not want the Ottomans to interfere with their trade in the Black Sea and Mediterranean. The Venetians' efforts mainly included giving Constantine XI ships and a total of 800 soldiers in February 1453. The Venetians also promised that a larger fleet would arrive to save Constantine, this fleet would be full of ammunition, fresh soldiers and supplies. This fleet never came. f: The Genoese captain Giovanni Giustiniani Longo was wounded in battle, but managed to escape, he died during the early days of June 1453. g: This Venetian captain was not an official sent by Venice, instead, he was the leader of the Venetian colony in the city and guaranteed his full support by the Ottomans navally, by supplying them with the ships the Venetians had in their harbour. The Fall of Constantinople ( , Alōsē tēs Kōnstantinoupolēs ; Conquest of Istanbul ) was the capture of the capital of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire by an invading army of the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday, 29 May 1453. The Ottomans were commanded by 21-year-old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II , who defeated an army commanded by Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos . The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven-week siege that had begun on Friday, 6 April 1453. The capture of Constantinople (and two other Byzantine splinter territories soon thereafter) marked the end of the Roman Empire , an imperial state which had lasted for nearly 1,500 years. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople also dealt a massive blow to Christendom , as the Ottoman armies thereafter were free to advance into Europe without an adversary to their rear. After the conquest, Sultan Mehmed II transferred the capital of the Ottoman Empire from Edirne to Constantinople. Several Greek and other intellectuals fled the city before and after the siege, with the majority of them migrating particularly to Italy , which helped fuel the Renaissance . Bizans'ın Son Yüzyılları (1261–1453). İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları. The Conquest of Constantinople, 1453 . A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle ... , Spencer C. Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium . A Short History of Byzantium . Nicolle 2000. İnalcık, Halil (2008), Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Klasik Çağ (1300–1600) Chronicles of George Sphrantzes; Greek text is reported in A. Mai, Classicorum auctorum e Vaticanis codicibus editorum , tome IX, Romae 1837, pp 1–100 The Destruction of the Greek Empire, Edwin Pears Leonardo di Chio, Letter ,927B: "three hundred thousand and more". A military history of the Ottomans: from Osman to Atatürk . The Fall of Constantinople: The Ottoman Conquest of Byzantium . Momigliano & Schiavone (1997), Introduction ("La Storia di Roma"), p. Cronicle of the Fall of Constantinople ", transl. Melisseidis & Poulcheria Zavolea-Melisseidou (1998/2004) - Ioannis A. Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453 . (reviewed by Foster, Charles (22 September 2006). It is the end of the Middle Ages )

1453 capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire For other sieges of the city, see List of sieges of Constantinople . The Fall of Constantinople ( ; ) was the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire . The Conquest of the city took place on 29 May 1453, the culmination of a 53-day siege which had begun on 6 April 1453. The attacking Ottoman army , which significantly outnumbered Constantinople's defenders, was commanded by the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II (later called Mehmed the Conqueror), while the Byzantine army was led by Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos . After conquering the city, Mehmed II made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital, replacing Adrianople . The Fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, and effectively the end of the Roman Empire , a state which dated back to 27 BC and lasted nearly 1,500 years. The capture of Constantinople, a city which marked the divide between Europe and Asia Minor , also allowed the Ottomans to more effectively invade mainland Europe , eventually leading to Ottoman control of much of the Balkan peninsula . The conquest of Constantinople and the fall of the Byzantine Empire was a key event of the Late Middle Ages and is sometimes considered the end of the Medieval period . The city's fall also stood as a turning point in military history. Since ancient times, cities and castles had depended upon ramparts and walls to repel invaders. However, Constantinople's substantial fortifications were overcome with the use of gunpowder , specifically in the form of large cannons and bombards . There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a template (see the help page ).

1453 Ottoman capture of the Byzantine capital For other sieges of the city, see List of sieges of Constantinople . The fall of Constantinople , also known as the conquest of Constantinople , was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire . The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 53-day siege which had begun on 6 April. The attacking Ottoman Army , which significantly outnumbered Constantinople's defenders, was commanded by the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II (later nicknamed "the Conqueror"), while the Byzantine army was led by Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos . After conquering the city, Mehmed II made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital, replacing Adrianople . The conquest of Constantinople and the fall of the Byzantine Empire was a watershed of the Late Middle Ages , marking the effective end of the last remains of the Roman Empire , a state which began in roughly 27 BC and had lasted nearly 1500 years. Among many modern historians, the fall of Constantinople is considered the end of the medieval period . The city's fall also stood as a turning point in military history . Since ancient times, cities and castles had depended upon ramparts and walls to repel invaders. The Walls of Constantinople , especially the Theodosian Walls, were some of the most advanced defensive systems in the world at the time. However, these fortifications were overcome with the use of gunpowder , specifically from Ottoman cannons and bombards , heralding a change in siege warfare. The Ottoman cannons repeatedly fired massive cannon balls weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) over 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) which created gaps in the Theodosian Walls for the Ottoman siege. "29 maggio 1453 – Una cronaca della caduta di Costantinopoli" . 29 May 2022. "29 maggio 1453 – Una cronaca della caduta di Costantinopoli" . 29 May 2022. As always casualty figures varied widely; Neskor-Iskander gave the number of Ottoman dead at 18,000; Barbaro a more realistic 200 "Geographical Record". Geographical Review . 11 (4): 611– 629. 1921. Less excusable still is the treatment accorded to the statements of Kritopoulos, that 4,500 were killed at the fall of Constantinople. Some 30,000 Christians were either enslaved or sold. There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a template (see the help page ).

1453 Ottoman capture of the Byzantine capital For other sieges of the city, see List of sieges of Constantinople . The Fall of Constantinople , also known as the Conquest of Constantinople , was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire . The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 55-day siege which had begun on 6 April. The attacking Ottoman Army , which significantly outnumbered Constantinople's defenders, was commanded by the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II (later nicknamed "the Conqueror"), while the Byzantine army was led by Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos . After conquering the city, Mehmed II made Constantinople the new Ottoman capital, replacing Adrianople . The fall of Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire was a watershed of the Late Middle Ages , marking the effective end of the Roman Empire , a state which began in roughly 27 BC and had lasted nearly 1,500 years. The city's fall also stood as a turning point in military history . Since ancient times, cities and castles had depended upon ramparts and walls to repel invaders. The walls of Constantinople , especially the Theodosian walls, protected Constantinople from attack for 800 years and were noted as some of the most advanced defensive systems in the world at the time. However, these fortifications were overcome with the use of gunpowder , specifically from Ottoman cannons and bombards , heralding a change in siege warfare. The Ottoman cannons repeatedly fired massive cannonballs weighing 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) over 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) which created gaps in the Theodosian walls for the Ottoman siege. The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571): The Fifteenth Century. Geographical Review . 11 (4): 611– 629. 1921. Less excusable still is the treatment accorded to the statements of Kritopoulos, that 4,500 were killed at the fall of Constantinople. There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a template (see the help page ).