Roman Empire

This article refers to the Roman Empire until its dissolution in the West, and not to its continuation in the East as the Byzantine Empire nor to its attempted restoration in Central Europe as the Holy Roman Empire (800-1806) . Empire infobox The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Ancient Roman polity in the centuries following its reorganization under the leadership of Octavian (better known as Caesar Augustus ). Although Rome accumulated a collection of tribute-states in the centuries before the autocracy of Augustus, the pre-Augustan state is conventionally described as the Roman Republic , since the structure of the power in that age was the one of a republic. Augustus' reorganization survived mostly unchanged until the Diocletian reform at end of the 3rd century , which turned the empire into a tetrarchy . While the political form given by Diocletian was short-lived, it led to the division of the Empire into two halves. This allowed Roman rule to continue for two more centuries over the whole empire, although divided into the Eastern and the Western Roman Empire . The end of the Western Empire is traditionally set in 476 , when Odovacar deposed the last Emperor and sent the Imperial insignia to Constantinople ; henceforth he nominally ruled as dux on behalf of Constantinople. After another millennium, in 1453 , the Eastern Empire, better known as the Byzantine Empire , fell to the Ottoman Turks . Because the empire of Rome lasted for such a long period of time 31 BC – 1453, there are certain alternative names used by historians to distinguish various semantic periods or eras. Such names include Byzantine Empire , Eastern Roman Empire and Western Roman Empire , which are used interchangably throughout this article to mean the same as Roman Empire. According to this theory, during the Principate (from the Latin word princeps , meaning "first citizen", the only title Augustus would permit himself) the realities of dictatorship were concealed behind Republican forms; while during the Dominate (from the word dominus , meaning "Master") imperial power showed its naked face, with golden crowns and ornate imperial ritual. We now know that the situation was far more nuanced: certain historical forms continued until the Byzantine period, more than one thousand years after they were created, and displays of imperial majesty were common from the earliest days of the Empire. The Roman Empire's influence on government, law, and monumental architecture, as well as many other aspects of Western life remains inescapable. Roman titles of power were adopted by successor states and other entities with imperial pretensions, including the Frankish kingdom, the Holy Roman Empire , the first and second Bulgarian empires (see List of Bulgarian monarchs ), the Russian/Kiev dynasties (see czars ), and the German Empire (see Kaiser ).

The Roman Empire was the post- Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization , characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, Augustus . The 500-year-old Roman Republic , which preceded it, had been weakened and subverted through several civil wars . Several events are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including Julius Caesar 's appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus (4 January 27 BC). Roman expansion began in the days of the Republic, but reached its zenith under Emperor Trajan . At this territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled approximately 6.5 million km² of land surface. Because of the Empire's vast extent and long endurance, Roman influence upon the language, religion, architecture, philosophy, law, and government of nations around the world lasts to this day. In the late 3rd century AD, Diocletian established the practice of dividing authority between four co-emperors, in order to better secure the vast territory. During the following decades the empire was often divided along an East/West axis. After the death of Theodosius I in 395 it was divided for the last time. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 as Romulus Augustus was forced to abdicate by Odoacer . The Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire ended in 1453 with the death of Constantine XI and the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks led by Mehmed II . There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a template (see the help page ). Constantine I (306 - 337 AD) by Hans A. JSTOR 10.2307/1170959 . : Check |first= value ( help ) John D.

Period of Imperial Rome following the Roman Republic (27 BC–476 AD) The Roman Empire ( , ; ) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome . As a polity it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe , Northern Africa , and Western Asia ruled by emperors . From the accession of Caesar Augustus to the military anarchy of the third century , it was a principate with Italy as metropole of the provinces and the city of Rome as sole capital (27 BC – 286 AD). Although fragmented briefly during the military crisis, the empire was forcibly reassembled, then ruled by multiple emperors who shared rule over the Western Roman Empire (based in Milan and later in Ravenna ) and over the Eastern Roman Empire (based in Nicomedia and later in Constantinople ). Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until 476 AD, when the imperial insignia were sent to Constantinople, following the capture of Ravenna by the barbarians of Odoacer and the subsequent deposition of Romulus Augustus . The fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings , along with the hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire , conventionally marks the end of Ancient Rome and the beginning of the Middle Ages . The predecessor state of the Roman Empire, the Roman Republic (which had replaced Rome's monarchy in the 6th century BC) became severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflicts. In the mid-1st century BC Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and proscriptions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian , Caesar's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The following year Octavian conquered Ptolemaic Egypt , ending the Hellenistic period that had begun with the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon in the 4th century BC. Octavian's power then became unassailable, and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus , effectively making him the first Roman emperor . The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). Rome reached its greatest territorial expanse during the reign of Trajan (98–117 AD). A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus (177–192). In the 3rd century the Empire underwent a crisis that threatened its existence, as the Gallic Empire and Palmyrene Empire broke away from the Roman state, and a series of short-lived emperors , often from the legions, led the empire. The empire was reunified under Aurelian ( r. 270–275 ). In an effort to stabilize it, Diocletian set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West in 286. Christians rose to positions of power in the fourth century following the Edict of Milan of 313. Shortly after, the Migration Period , involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila , led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire . With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476 AD by Odoacer , the Western Roman Empire finally collapsed – the (Eastern Roman) Emperor Zeno formally abolished it in 480 AD . Nonetheless, some states in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire would later claim to have inherited the supreme power of the emperors of Rome, most notably the Holy Roman Empire . The Eastern Roman Empire, usually described by modern historians as the Byzantine Empire , survived for another millennium until it collapsed when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks of Sultan Mehmed II in 1453. Due to the Roman Empire's vast extent and long endurance, the institutions and culture of Rome had a profound and lasting influence on the development of language , religion , art , architecture , philosophy , law , and forms of government in the territory it governed, and far beyond. The Latin language of the Romans evolved into the Romance languages of the medieval and modern world, while Medieval Greek became the language of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Empire's adoption of Christianity led to the formation of medieval Christendom . Greek and Roman art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance . Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque , Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture , and also had a strong influence on Islamic architecture . The corpus of Roman law has its descendants in many legal systems of the world today, such as the Napoleonic Code , while Rome's republican institutions have left an enduring legacy , influencing the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics. There are <ref group=n> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a template (see the help page ). The Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism . Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times . Regions east of the Euphrates river were held only in the years 116–117. Journal of World-Systems Research . 12 (2): 222.

Period of Imperial Rome following the Roman Republic (27 BC–AD 1453) For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation) . The Roman Empire is generally understood to mean the period, and the territory ruled, following Octavian 's assumption of sole rule under the Principate in 31 BC, even though Rome had established an empire long before this date. Its territory included the shores of the whole Mediterranean and eventually extended as far as Britannia and Western Asia . Rome had expanded its rule to most of the Mediterranean and beyond, but became severely destabilized in civil wars and political conflicts which culminated in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the subsequent conquest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. The Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching power ( imperium ) and the new title of Augustus , marking his accession as the first Roman emperor of a monarchy with Rome as its sole capital. The vast Roman territories were organized in senatorial and imperial provinces. The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana ( lit. ' Roman Peace ' ). Rome reached its greatest territorial expanse under Trajan (AD 98–117); a period of increasing trouble and decline began under Commodus (180–192). In the 3rd century, the Empire underwent a crisis that threatened its existence, as the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires broke away from the Roman state, and a series of short-lived emperors led the Empire. It was reunified under Aurelian ( r. 270–275 ). Diocletian set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West in 286; Christians rose to power in the 4th century following the Edict of Milan . The imperial seat moved from Rome to Byzantium in 330, renamed Constantinople after Constantine the Great . The Migration Period , involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila , led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire . With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 by Odoacer, the Western Roman Empire finally collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium with Constantinople as its sole capital, until the city's fall in 1453. Due to the Empire's extent and endurance, its institutions and culture had a lasting influence on the development of language , religion , art , architecture , literature , philosophy , law , and forms of government in its territories. Latin evolved into the Romance languages , while Medieval Greek became the language of the East. The Empire's adoption of Christianity led to the formation of medieval Christendom . Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance . Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque , Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture , and influenced Islamic architecture . The rediscovery of classical science and technology (which formed the basis for Islamic science ) in medieval Europe led to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific Revolution . Many modern legal systems, such as the Napoleonic Code , descend from Roman law, while Rome's republican institutions have influenced the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, the early United States , and modern democratic republics. There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ). The Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism . Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (Revised ed.). Ancient Rome: The Definitive Visual History . Handbook of Medieval Studies: Terms – Methods – Trends . Constantine the Great transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the newly-founded city of Constantinople Price, Jonathan J.; Finkelberg, Margalit; Shahar, Yuval (2022). Rome: An Empire of Many Nations . The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome . Constantine sounded the death knell for Rome as a vital political centre with the dedication of his new imperial capital at Constantinople Bjornlie, M. As a new capital, Constantinople provided a stage for imperial prestige that did not depend on association with the traditions of the senatorial establishment at Rome Coffler, Gail H. It became Constantinople, capital of the entire Roman Empire Maxwell, Kathleen (2016). An Illuminated Byzantine Gospel Book (Paris gr. 54) and the Union of Churches . Constantine the Great, the emperor who moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople Grig, Lucy; Kelly, Gavin (2012). The Governance of ROME . Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium . The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228) . Journal of World-Systems Research . 12 (2): 222. After the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Osmanli Turks called their empire the Empire of Rum (Rome).

Roman imperial state and civilization from 27 BC to 476/1453 AD For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation) . The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Romans conquered most of this during the Republic , and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian 's assumption of effective sole rule in 27 BC. The western empire collapsed in 476 AD, but the eastern empire lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. By 100 BC, the city of Rome had expanded its rule from the Italian peninsula to most of the Mediterranean and beyond. However, it was severely destabilised by civil wars and political conflicts , which culminated in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the subsequent conquest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. In 27 BC, the Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching military power ( imperium ) and the new title of Augustus , marking his accession as the first Roman emperor . The vast Roman territories were organized into senatorial provinces, governed by proconsuls who were appointed by lot annually, and imperial provinces, which belonged to the emperor but were governed by legates . The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana ( lit. ' Roman Peace ' ). Rome reached its greatest territorial extent under Trajan ( r. 98–117 AD ), but a period of increasing trouble and decline began under Commodus ( r. 180–192 ). In the 3rd century, the Empire underwent a 49-year crisis that threatened its existence due to civil war, plagues and barbarian invasions . The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from the state and a series of short-lived emperors led the Empire, which was later reunified under Aurelian ( r. 270–275 ). The civil wars ended with the victory of Diocletian ( r. 284–305 ), who set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West . Constantine the Great ( r. 306–337 ), the first Christian emperor , moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330, and renamed it Constantinople . The Migration Period , involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attila , led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire . With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 by Odoacer , the Western Empire finally collapsed. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire survived for another millennium with Constantinople as its sole capital, until the city's fall in 1453. Due to the Empire's extent and endurance, its institutions and culture had a lasting influence on the development of language , religion , art , architecture , literature , philosophy , law , and forms of government across its territories. Latin evolved into the Romance languages while Medieval Greek became the language of the East. The Empire's adoption of Christianity resulted in the formation of medieval Christendom . Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance . Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque , Renaissance , and Neoclassical architecture , influencing Islamic architecture . The rediscovery of classical science and technology (which formed the basis for Islamic science ) in medieval Europe contributed to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific Revolution . Many modern legal systems, such as the Napoleonic Code , descend from Roman law. Rome's republican institutions have influenced the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, the early United States , and modern democratic republics . The Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism . Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed (Revised ed.). "The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire in AD 395: Notes on a Persistent Theme in Modern Historiography" . Ancient Rome: The Definitive Visual History . Handbook of Medieval Studies . Constantine the Great transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the newly-founded city of Constantinople Price, Jonathan J.; Finkelberg, Margalit; Shahar, Yuval (2022). Rome: An Empire of Many Nations . The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome . Constantine sounded the death knell for Rome as a vital political centre with the dedication of his new imperial capital at Constantinople Bjornlie, M. As a new capital, Constantinople provided a stage for imperial prestige that did not depend on association with the traditions of the senatorial establishment at Rome Coffler, Gail H. It became Constantinople, capital of the entire Roman Empire Maxwell, Kathleen (2016). An Illuminated Byzantine Gospel Book (Paris gr. 54) and the Union of Churches . Constantine the Great, the emperor who moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople Grig, Lucy; Kelly, Gavin (2012). The Governance of ROME . Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium . The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228) . Journal of World-Systems Research . 12 (2): 222. Provincial Rome: What's The Difference?" . After the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Osmanli Turks called their empire the Empire of Rum (Rome). There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or templates on this page, but the references will not show without a template or template (see the help page ).