Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent

The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 12th century onwards, though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region, beginning during the period of the ascendancy of the Rajput Kingdoms in North India , although Sindh and Multan were captured in 8th century.. Throughout its history the Indian subcontinent (encompassing modern-day Pakistan , India and Bangladesh ) has been frequently subject to invasion, from the North-West by Central Asian nomadic tribes and the Persian Empire . With the fall of the Sassanids and the arrival of the Caliphates , these regions were integrated into Muslim dynasties of Central Asian heritage; initially Turkic people and later Mongol and Turco-Mongol people . Unlike earlier conquerors who assimilated into prevalent social systems, Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created legal and administrative systems that challenged and destroyed existing systems of social conduct, culture, religious practices, lifestyle and ethics. The first foray by the new Muslim successor states of the Sassanid Empire occurred around 664 CE during the Umayyad Caliphate , led by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah towards Multan in Southern Punjab , in modern day Pakistan . Muhallab's expeditions were not aimed at conquest, though they penetrated only as far as the capital of the Maili , he returned with wealth and prisoners of war . This was an Arab incursion and part of the early Umayyad push onwards from the Islamic conquest of Persia into Central Asia, and within the limits of the eastern borders of previous Persian empires. The last Arab push in the region would be towards the end of Umayyad reign under Muhammad bin Qasim , after whom the Arabs would be defeated by the Rajputs at the Battle of Rajasthan in 738, and Muslim incursions would only be resumed under later Turkic and Afghan dynasties with more local capitals, who supplanted the Caliphate and expanded their domains both northwards and eastwards. It took several centuries for Islam to spread across India and how it did so is a topic of intense debate. Some quarters hold that Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam by the establishment of Jizya and Dhimmitude favoring Muslim citizens, and the threat of naked force. Others hold that it occurred through inter-marriage, conversions, economic integration, and through the influence of Sufi preachers.

Mahmud of Ghazni , the first ruler to hold the title Sultan , who preserved an ideological link to the suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphate , invaded and plundered vast parts of Punjab , Gujarat , starting from the Indus River , during the 10th century . After the capture of Lahore and the end of the Ghaznavids , the Ghurid Empire ruled by Muhammad of Ghor and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India. In 1206, Bakhtiyar Khalji led the Muslim conquest of Bengal , marking the easternmost expansion of Islam at the time. The Ghurid Empire soon evolved into the Delhi Sultanate ruled by Qutb al-Din Aibak , the founder of the Mamluk dynasty . With the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, Islam was spread across most parts of the Indian subcontinent. In the 14th century, the Khalji dynasty , under Alauddin Khalji , temporarily extended Muslim rule southwards to Gujarat , Rajasthan and the Deccan , while the Tughlaq dynasty temporarily expanded its territorial reach till Tamil Nadu . The break up of the Delhi Sultanate resulted in several Muslim sultanates and dynasties to emerge across the Indian subcontinent, such as the Gujarat Sultanate , Malwa Sultanate , the Bahmani Sultanate and the wealthy Bengal Sultanate , a major trading nation in the world. Some of these were however followed by Hindu re-conquests and resistance from the native powers, and states such as the Kamma Nayakas , Vijayanagaras , Gajapatis , Cheros , Reddys and Rajput states. Prior to the full rise of the Mughal Empire founded by Babur , one of the gunpowder empires , which annexed almost all of the ruling elites of the whole of South Asia , the Sur Empire ruled by Sher Shah Suri conquered large territories in the northern parts of India. Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of South Asia, but the zenith was reached in the end of the 17th century , when the reign under emperor Aurangzeb witnessed the full establishment of Islamic sharia through the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri . The Mughals suffered a massive decline in the early 18th century after Afsharid ruler Nader Shah 's invasion , an unexpected attack that demonstrated the weakness of the Mughal Empire. This provided opportunities for the powerful Mysore Kingdom , Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad , Maratha Empire , Sikh Empire , Nizams of Hyderabad to exercise control over large regions of the Indian subcontinent. After the Battle of Plassey , Battle of Buxar and the long Anglo-Mysore Wars , the East India Company ended up seizing control of the entire Indian subcontinent. By the end of the 18th century , European powers, mainly the British Empire , commenced to extend political influence over the Muslim world , as well as extending into the Indian subcontinent, and by the end of the 19th century, much of the Muslim world as well as the Indian subcontinent, came under European colonial domination, most notably the British Raj . Morality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance . A History of State and Religion in India .

The Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place between the 13th and the 18th centuries. Earlier Muslim conquests in the subcontinent include the invasions which started in what is now modern-day Pakistan , especially the Umayyad campaigns during the 8th century and the Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests . Mahmud of Ghazni , Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire , preserved an ideological link to the suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphate and invaded vast parts of Punjab and Gujarat during the 11th century. After the capture of Lahore and the end of the Ghaznavids , the Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India in 1192. In 1202, Bakhtiyar Khalji led the Muslim conquest of Bengal , marking the easternmost expansion of Islam at the time. The Ghurid Empire soon evolved into the Delhi Sultanate in 1206, ruled by Qutb ud-Din Aibak , the founder of the Mamluk dynasty . With the Delhi Sultanate established, Islam was spread across most parts of the Indian subcontinent. In the 14th century, the Khalji dynasty under Alauddin Khalji , extended Muslim rule southwards to Gujarat , Rajasthan , and the Deccan . The successor Tughlaq dynasty temporarily expanded its territorial reach to Tamil Nadu . The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, mainly caused by Timur's invasion in 1398, caused several Muslim sultanates and dynasties to emerge across the Indian subcontinent, such as the Gujarat Sultanate , Malwa Sultanate , Khandesh Sultanate , Bahmani Sultanate , Jaunpur Sultanate , Madurai Sultanate , and the wealthy and powerful Bengal Sultanate , a major trading nation in the world. Some of these, however, were followed by Hindu reconquests and resistance from the native powers and states, such as the Kamma Nayakas , Vijayanagaras , and Rajput states . The Delhi Sultanate was replaced by the Mughal Empire in 1526, which was one of the three gunpowder empires . Emperor Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include a large portion of the subcontinent. Under Akbar the great, who stressed the importance of religious tolerance and winning over the goodwill of the subjects, a multicultural empire came into being with various non-Muslim subjects being actively integrated into the mughal empires bureaucracy and military machinery. The economic and territorial zenith of the Mughals was reached at the end of the 17th century, when under the reign of emperor Aurangzeb the empire witnessed the full establishment of Islamic Sharia through the Fatawa al-Alamgir . The Mughals went into a sudden decline immediately after achieving their peak following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, due to a lack of competent and effective rulers among Aurangzeb's successors. Other factors included the expensive and bloody Mughal-Rajput Wars and the Mughal–Maratha Wars . The Afsharid ruler Nader Shah's invasion in 1739 was an unexpected attack which demonstrated the weakness of the Mughal Empire. This provided opportunities for various regional states such as Rajput states , Mysore Kingdom , Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad , Maratha Empire , Sikh Empire , and Nizams of Hyderabad to declare their independence and exercising control over large regions of the Indian subcontinent further accelerating the geopolitical disintegration of the Indian subcontinent. The Maratha Empire replaced Mughals as the dominant power of the subcontinent from 1720 to 1818. The Muslim conquests in Indian subcontinent came to a halt after the Battle of Plassey (1757), the Battle of Buxar (1764), Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799), Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818) and Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1848) as the British East India Company seized control of much of the Indian subcontinent up till 1857. Throughout the 18th century, European powers continued to exert a large amount of political influence over the Indian subcontinent, and by the end of the 19th century most of the Indian subcontinent came under European colonial domination, most notably the British Raj until 1947.

The Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place between the 13th and the 18th centuries, establishing the Indo-Muslim period . Earlier Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent include the invasions which started in the northwestern Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pakistan ), especially the Umayyad campaigns during the 8th century. Mahmud of Ghazni , sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire , preserved an ideological link to the suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphate and invaded vast parts of Punjab and Gujarat during the 11th century. After the capture of Lahore and the end of the Ghaznavids , the Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India in 1192. In 1202, Bakhtiyar Khalji led the Muslim conquest of Bengal , marking the easternmost expansion of Islam at the time. The Ghurid Empire soon evolved into the Delhi Sultanate in 1206, ruled by Qutb ud-Din Aibak , the founder of the Mamluk dynasty . With the Delhi Sultanate established, Islam was spread across most parts of the Indian subcontinent. In the 14th century, the Khalji dynasty under Alauddin Khalji , extended Muslim rule southwards to Gujarat , Rajasthan , and the Deccan . The successor Tughlaq dynasty temporarily expanded its territorial reach to Tamil Nadu . The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate, capped by Timur's invasion in 1398, caused several Muslim sultanates and dynasties to emerge across the Indian subcontinent, such as the Gujarat Sultanate , Malwa Sultanate , Bahmani Sultanate , Jaunpur Sultanate , Madurai Sultanate , and the Bengal Sultanate . Some of these, however, were followed by Hindu reconquests and resistance from the native powers and states, such as the Telugu Nayakas, Vijayanagara , and Rajput states under the Kingdom of Mewar . The Delhi Sultanate was replaced by the Mughal Empire in 1526, which was one of the three gunpowder empires . Emperor Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include a large portion of the subcontinent. Under Akbar, who stressed the importance of religious tolerance and winning over the goodwill of the subjects, a multicultural empire came into being with various non-Muslim subjects being actively integrated into the Mughal Empire's bureaucracy and military machinery. The economic and territorial zenith of the Mughals was reached at the end of the 17th century, when under the reign of emperor Aurangzeb the empire witnessed the full establishment of Islamic Sharia through the Fatawa al-Alamgir . The Mughals went into a sudden decline immediately after achieving their peak following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, due to a lack of competent and effective rulers among Aurangzeb's successors. Other factors included the expensive and bloody Mughal-Rajput Wars and the Mughal–Maratha Wars . The Afsharid ruler Nader Shah's invasion in 1739 was an unexpected attack which demonstrated the weakness of the Mughal Empire. This provided opportunities for various regional states such as Rajput states , Mysore Kingdom , Sind State , Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad , Maratha Empire , Sikh Empire , and Nizams of Hyderabad to declare their independence and exercising control over large regions of the Indian subcontinent further accelerating the geopolitical disintegration of the Indian subcontinent. The Maratha Empire replaced Mughals as the dominant power of the subcontinent from 1720 to 1818. The Muslim conquests in Indian subcontinent came to a halt after the Battle of Plassey (1757), the Battle of Buxar (1764), Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799), Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818), Anglo-Sind War (1843) and Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1848) as the British East India Company seized control of much of the Indian subcontinent up till 1857. Throughout the 18th century, European powers continued to exert a large amount of political influence over the Indian subcontinent, and by the end of the 19th century most of the Indian subcontinent came under European colonial domination , most notably the British Raj until 1947. "Watch | Indians, Episode 9: The Mughals and Bernier" . thewire.in . The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara . Only in Mewar and in Vijaynagar had Hindu states withstood the deluge".